Religion

When Europeans began arriving in North America in the sixteenth century, they encountered Native American traditions that dated back thousands of years. Although native peoples observed a wide variety of religious practices, they all believed in a supreme creator who was present in every aspect of nature. For instance, Native Americans in eastern North America (known as the Eastern Woodland tribes) believed they were only a small part of a harmonious world created by the Great Spirit. All of nature contained this divine spirit and was to be respected. Thus they changed their environment as little as possible, taking only what they needed. They thanked a tree for dying and providing them with wood for a fire. They thanked an animal they had killed for giving up its flesh to feed them and its skin to clothe them. The European view—that humans dominated nature and could change it for their advantage—made no sense to these people. Access to the spirit world came through dreams, which shamans (priests) interpreted for them. Often these shamans were women, who seemed to be more in contact with the spiritual realm because of their role in the miraculous event of childbirth.

Europeans did not recognize the basic similarities between Native American beliefs and their own Christian religions. Therefore most European colonists attempted to convince native peoples that the Christian God was the one true god and only European religious practices were correct. They also promoted the European way of life, which made it easier to convert Native Americans to Christianity and suppress their traditional religious practices. (Conversion was also a way to acquire more land and expand European settlement.) Native Americans who did convert usually practiced their own religion as well, producing a blend of native traditions and Christianity.

Spanish introduce Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholicism (also known as Catholicism) was the first European religion in North America. The Spanish introduced it in the sixteenth century, after they had conquered wealthy empires in Peru and Mexico and moved north in search of more riches. One of their other main goals was to convert Native North Americans to Christianity. At that time, Catholicism was the only church in western Europe (the term catholic means universal), and leaders of nations were determined to spread their religion to non-Christian lands. Spain was especially dedicated to this goal, and the pope (the head of the church) granted so much power to the Spanish monarchs, King Ferdinand (1452–1516) and Queen Isabella (1451–1504), that they virtually became "vice-popes." Seized by religious enthusiasm, they were determined to promote Catholicism in the New World (a European term for North and South America) after Italian explorer Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) discovered it in 1492 (see Chapter 2).

Roman Catholicism has undergone many changes since the sixteenth century, but its major characteristics have remained the same. The Catholic Church (officially titled the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church) is a Christian religion based in Rome, Italy, and headed by the pope (the bishop of Rome), who is considered Jesus's representative on Earth. (Jesus of Nazareth, also called the Christ, was the founder of Christianity.) Catholic doctrine is based on the Bible (the Christian holy book), which the pope interprets with the advice of a council of bishops (leaders who govern church dioceses, or regions). The pope, either alone or in consultation with his bishops, determines matters of faith and morality, and Catholics must accept his word as absolute truth. Catholics honor the Virgin Mary (the mother of Jesus) and other saints (those who have been declared holy by the church), who each have a special day that is celebrated by the church.

Catholic worship services are based on the sacraments, or rituals through which God directly conveys forgiveness of sins. The principal sacraments are penance (confession and punishment of sins) and the Eucharist (holy communion). In the sacrament of penance, the penitent (one who has sinned) is required to confess his or her mortal (serious) sins at least once a year to a priest (an ordained clergyman of the church). The priest determines penances (punishment), which usually involve the penitent saying certain prayers. The sacrament of the Eucharist involves church members consuming bread and wine, which are considered the body and blood of Christ. This central ritual of the Roman Catholic Church is performed during the mass (religious service).

"the blessings of being a Christian"

Spanish Franciscan friars (priests) eventually succeeded in converting the Pueblo to Christianity. Nevertheless they met resistance along the way, especially among the older generation. In 1634 Fray Alonso de Benavides wrote an account of the missionaries' efforts to Christianize the Native Americans. He told the story of one priest, Fray Martín de Arvide, who had been cruelly treated by an old Pueblo priest at the village of Picuries two years earlier:

[Fray Martín de Arvide] converted more than two hundred Indians, suffering great hardships and personal dangers, as these people are the most indomitable [hardest to subdue] of that kingdom. He founded a church and convent large enough to minister to all the baptized [those admitted into the church]. Among the newly converted, there was a young man, a son of one of the principal sorcerers [Pueblo priests]. On a certain occasion, the latter undertook to pervert his son and dissuade him from what the padre [Father Arvide] taught. When the father was informed of it, he left the convent with a crucifix [cross bearing the likeness of the crucified Jesus] in his hands and, filled with apostolic [missionary] spirit, he went to the place where the infernal minister [the Pueblo priest] was perverting that soul and began to remonstrate [express objections] with him, saying, "Is it not sufficient that you yourself want to go to hell without desiring to take your son also?" Addressing the young man, he said, "Son, I am more your father and I love you more than he, for he wants to take you with him to the suffering of hell, while I wish you to enjoy the blessings of being a Christian." With divine zeal, he advanced these and other arguments. The old sorcerer arose, grasped a large club near by, and struck the blessed father such a blow on the head that he felled him and then he and others dragged him around the plaza and illtreated him cruelly. Miraculously he escaped from their hands; although very eager to offer his life to its Giver, God preserved him for a later occasion.

Reprinted in: Kupperman, Karen Ordahl, ed. Major Problems in American Colonial History. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1993, pp. 42–43.

Missionaries find easy converts

The first Spanish settlement in North America was a Catholic mission at present-day Saint Augustine, Florida, which prospered for many years after its founding in 1565. Jesuits and Franciscans (men who belong to Catholic religious orders) established missions, hospitals, and convents in Spanish territory, called La Florida, which extended north from Saint Augustine to present-day South Carolina and Alabama. After 1598 the Spanish ventured into New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas, where they slowly established the largest concentration of missions in North America. By 1634 there were thirty-four Franciscans maintaining forty-four missions and ministering to more than twenty-five thousand Native American converts. They conducted most of their mission work among the Pueblo, a group of tribes who lived in apartment-like structures. These farming people eagerly adapted the agricultural technology of the Spaniards and welcomed the Franciscans, showing great respect for the European spiritual leaders.

Pueblo Creation Myth

Like all major religions, the Pueblo's spiritual philosophy had at its center a creation myth to explain the phenomenon of life. They believed they had once lived in the center of the Earth (called the middle cosmos) with their mother and all other living creatures. When it was time to leave, she gave them corn to take the place of her nourishment and appointed a priest to take care of them. With aid from the birds, insects, and animals, the Pueblo and their gods climbed up to the surface of the Earth. They entered into the "White House," from which they could view the sky, the third level of the cosmos (universe). In the sky, two sisters were contending to see who was stronger. They fought to a draw. One sister then went east and became the mother of the white people, while the other went west and became the mother of the Native Americans. The Pueblo remained with their gods at the White House, where they were taught how to farm, how to honor the gods, and how to perform the sacred rituals and ceremonies that would integrate humans with the forces of the cosmos. Upon completing their instruction, the people left the White House and established their villages.

Pueblo observe ancient traditions

Like the Spanish, the Pueblo kept religion at the center of their culture. Pueblo rituals were performed by spiritual leaders (priests; also called medicine men); it was believed they were sent to Earth by the gods, who instructed them before their descent into this realm. The kiva was the most sacred place in all of the Pueblo villages, for it represented the hole in the Earth through which they came, a hole that extended into the underworld, the first level of the cosmos. It was through the kiva that they could communicate with their gods. The kiva was located at the center of each village, from which all else was measured—the apartments, fields, and boundaries of the village. In this circular area was a partially underground room where all the ceremonies that marked the phases of the year took place. This was the time during the ceremonies when it was necessary to enlist the help and advice of the gods and cosmic forces. Next to it was a room where sacred masks and other religious paraphernalia were stored. A chief priest cared for these objects and oversaw the rituals, aided by trained assistants.

Pueblo absorb Catholicism

At first the Pueblo had no difficulty incorporating Catholicism into their traditional religion because they considered the white friars the priests or assistants of the eastern sister (the mother of the white people). The Christian god therefore took his place among their own gods. The Pueblo added to their rituals such Catholic practices as kneeling in prayer and chanting. They included chalices (cups used for drinking wine during communion) among the objects in their sacred warehouse. In addition, they found similarities between Catholic crucifixes (crosses bearing the image of the crucified Jesus of Nazareth, also called Christ) and their own prayer sticks, and the use of incense (a material used to produce a fragrant odor when burned) in Catholic worship services resembled their own rituals in which they smoked pipes. The friars welcomed this blending of traditions and even formed Pueblo boys' choirs to perfect their chanting.

Catholics driven out of Southwest

However, the Pueblo became increasingly resentful of the missionaries. In 1680, after eighty-two years of Spanish occupation, the Pueblo revolutionary leader Popé (c. 1625–1690) led a revolt against Catholicism. Defying Spanish laws, Popé urged the Pueblo to return to their traditional religion and way of life. Organizing a massive force at Santa Fe, New Mexico, he led a siege in which four hundred Spanish missionaries and colonists were killed. The survivors fled hundreds of miles south, into Mexico. As the new leader of the Pueblo, Popé set about removing all traces of Spanish influence: he outlawed the Spanish language, destroyed Catholic churches, and cleansed people who had been baptized by missionaries. Within a decade, however, Popé's power was weakened by Apache raids, internal Pueblo dissension (discord), and his own harsh rule. In 1692, less than two years after Popé's death, the Spaniards once again conquered the Pueblo.

French bring Catholicism to Canada

While Spanish missionaries were spreading Christianity in the southeastern and southwestern regions of North America, the French were introducing Catholicism in New France (present-day Canada; see Chapter 3). French explorers were attracted to the New World by the promise of a profitable fur trade in the Great Lakesregion of Canada and the present-day United States (territory bordering a chain of five lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario). Like the Spanish, the French combined conquest with conversion. Leading the effort were members of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, who arrived in New France in 1615 to minister to the Hurons, a mighty nation of thirty thousand who inhabited the region around Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario. The Jesuits were known throughout the world for their ability to adapt to foreign cultures in a campaign to draw converts to Catholicism. Attired in distinctive black tunics, they were called the "Black Robes" by the Hurons. The Jesuits stayed in New France until the fall of Quebec, the main settlement, four years later. The French then moved south into territory that is now the United States. (The province of New France was restored in 1632.)

When the French ventured south, however, they encountered hostility from the Spanish and the English. Spreading Christianity therefore became less important than expanding French territory and protecting trade routes. The Jesuits also met resistance from several Huron and Iroquois groups who did not want to adopt European customs. In 1647 the Jesuits therefore relaxed their requirements for baptism (initiation into Christianity through anointment with water) and became more tolerant of traditional Native American religious practices. They also took advantage of the natives' belief in the supernatural. For instance, the priests claimed the Catholic crucifix had the power to heal simple diseases. They made a great show of their ability to read and write and predict solar eclipses (the total or partial obscuring of one celestial body by another), which seemed magical to the Native Americans. The Jesuits also capitalized on their own practical skills, their willingness to share belongings, and their ability to endure hardship—all characteristics that Native Americans admired and respected. The Jesuits ultimately had little impact on the culture of the Hurons, but they left a legacy of Christian commitment among French settlers in Canada and along the northern boundaries of the present-day United States.

Catholics start Maryland colony

Catholics were also among the early English settlers in New York, Pennsylvania, and other colonies. They were often denied political rights and found the most freedom in Maryland. In 1632 King Charles I granted a proprietary charter (a privately held contract granting the right to form a self-governing colony) to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore, to found the Maryland colony (named for Queen Henrietta Maria, the king's wife). Calvert died soon thereafter, so his son Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, developed the colony as a place of refuge for his fellow Catholics. At that time England was embroiled in a conflict that culminated in the English Civil War (1642–48) and the execution of Charles I. The complex political situation was fueled by a religious struggle, primarily between Puritans (a religious group that believed in strict moral and spiritual codes) and Catholics. The Puritans had an intense hatred of Catholics, whom they persecuted, and they especially feared Charles because Queen Henrietta Maria was Catholic.

In 1634 a group of settlers—both Catholics and Protestants—arrived in Maryland. Calvert remained in England, but he told the Maryland governor not to offend the Protestants and advised the Catholics to worship privately. Such toleration of other denominations (organized religious groups) was the only way the Catholics could have any rights at all. A church building was immediately erected in Saint Mary's, the first settlement, and within five years at least four other Catholic parishes had been started. For the first decade the conduct of church affairs was in the hands of Jesuit priests, who converted both Protestants and Native Americans. However, their success provoked the growing numbers of Protestant settlers, and the Calverts quietly began to limit Jesuit activities and invite the ministries of other orders.

In 1649 the Catholic-dominated assembly (lawmaking body) passed an Act Concerning Religion, putting into law the long-practiced policy of toleration. Protestants briefly held power from 1689 to 1691, after Protestant monarchs King William III and Queen Mary II took the English throne during the Glorious Revolution. Maryland then became a royal colony (came under direct rule of the English Crown). The Calverts regained control in 1715, but by this time they had converted to Anglicanism (the official religion of England). Nevertheless, they maintained their earlier policy of toleration, and a small core of Catholics continued to practice their faith in spite of increasing Protestant threats. As moderately wealthy landowners, Catholics enjoyed sufficient social status to sustain their churches.

Church of England

The Church of England (also called Anglicanism) was founded as the official religion of Great Britain in 1534. The church was indirectly a result of the Protestant Reformation. The Protestant movement began in England in 1531 when King Henry VIII decided to annul (make legally invalid or void) his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. A staunch Roman Catholic, Henry wanted to marry again because Catherine had not borne him a son and he was determined to father a male heir to the throne. He encountered strong resistance from the Catholic pope, who had the final authority to nullify marriages. Since Catherine was a Spanish princess and the Catholic Church depended on Spain to fight Protestantism in Europe, the pope could not afford to alienate the Spanish by granting the annulment.

Henry formally broke with the Catholic Church in 1534 and declared himself head of the Church of England. But his quarrel with Catholicism was political, not religious. Although he closed monasteries (houses for monks, or men who take religious vows) and seized Catholic lands, he retained bishops and priests. Henry actually did not want to change the church because he loved the rituals, especially the elaborate ceremonies and fancy vestments (robes) worn by bishops and priests during the mass.

Anglicanism in the Chesapeake

With the English founding of Jamestown in 1607 (see Chapter 4), Anglicanism was possibly the first Protestant religion introduced in North America. It became a dominant force, especially after all of the colonies came under English control in the late 1600s and early 1700s. For many years, however, the church was mostly a social organization. The first Anglican churches were clustered around the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and Virginia, where settlers lived far apart on plantations. They were under the jurisdiction of church authorities in London, who paid them little attention. Making matters worse, Anglican clergymen, who were educated and ordained (officially appointed) in England, did not want to exchange their comfortable positions at home for the poor pay and primitive conditions in the colonies. Most clergymen therefore came to the colonies because they were unable to find a parish (area served by a church) in England. They offered hardly any religious instruction and discipline and rarely bothered to provide a moral example to their parishioners.

Church serves gentry

In the seventeenth-century South, the Anglican Church supported the power of the gentry (upper class), who were the vestrymen of the parish (congregation members who administered the business of the church). These men handled church finances, determined who was to receive public assistance, investigated complaints against the minister, and generally conducted the day-to-day business of the parish. A vestry position was the first rung on the ladder to political power that members of the gentry climbed on their way to colony-wide offices. Taxpayers were assessed a fixed amount to pay for the minister and parish activities. Often the tax was figured in tobacco, which almost everyone grew (tobacco was the main crop of Virginia and Maryland) and which the ministers could sell to support themselves.

Anglican worship services consisted of prayers from the Book of Common Prayer (the official text for church rituals), reading of the Scriptures (the Bible, or Christian holy book), and the minister's sermon. Communion (a ritual in which bread and wine represent the body and blood of Christ; also known as the Lord's Supper) was served four times a year, and anyone who had been confirmed as a church member and seemed to be of sound moral character could participate. Clergymen benefitted from supporting the upper classes (mainly plantation owners), so they frequently used their sermons to remind the lower classes (servants and laborers) to pay proper respect to the gentry. Attending church was mainly an opportunity for colonists to exchange news and conduct business. Once the lower classes had settled down for worship, the gentry paraded into the church and took their seats in the best pews. Sometimes they did not even bother to enter at all.

Renewal of Anglicanism

The arrival of minister James Blair (1656–1743) in 1689 marked the beginning of improvements in the Anglican Church. He was the commissary, or personal representative, of the bishop of London, who supervised parishes in the colonies. Blair was determined to centralize all church authority and administration into his own hands and then mold the clergy into true spiritual leaders. Although vestrymen resisted his efforts, he managed to improve the conduct of existing clergymen and attract more educated ministers to the colonies. As a result of Blair's efforts, Maryland established Anglicanism as the main religion in 1702. Carolina followed suit in 1706, creating ten new parishes and building the elegant St. Philip's Church in Charleston.

African religions

Africans were among the earliest immigrant groups in North America, arriving as slaves in Virginia in 1619. Most came from the western areas of Africa and held a variety of religious beliefs. There were some common patterns, however. Africans believed in one High God, who created the world. He was often associated with the sky and remained somewhat uninvolved in the lives of humans. Lesser gods and ancestral spirits, however, were actively involved with people's daily lives. Groups of gods were associated with aspects of nature, such as thunder, the earth, and especially water. Gods of nature resided in trees, hills, and animals. They could be kind or cruel and had individual personalities.

Ancestral spirits honored

Humans had to maintain proper relationships with the gods by constructing shrines, wearing certain colors, eating certain foods, and conducting religious ceremonies that pleased them. Ancestral spirits were more varied and personal than gods. Whether they had lived long ago or recently, they were honored as founders of villages and kinship groups. The spirits served as custodians (one in charge) of culture and laws and as mediators between humans and gods. They could grant or deny fertility (the ability to bear children) and health. The spirits were reincarnated (reborn in another human form) in one of their descendants, but their souls returned to the High God after that human died.

Africans respected the elderly because they preserved the memory of the dead and because they were closer in age to the ancestors. Burial rites ensured that the dead entered the spirit world and did not linger in the natural world as restless and evil ghosts. Funerals were long affairs. After death the ancestors demanded offerings of food and drink in ceremonies that often became quite complex. Priests served as mediators, able to read the fates of individuals, to divine the wills of gods and ancestral spirits, and to identify witchcraft. They prescribed amulets, or charms, that contained magical powers to protect and help humans and knew of the natural herbs and roots that promoted healing. Priests also conducted the religious ceremonies devoted to individual gods and ancestral spirits. Interwoven with these rituals were music, dancing, drumming, and singing.

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel

In 1701 the Anglican Church founded the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England. The goal of the organization was to reverse the embarrassment that the colonial Anglican Church had become to the mother church in England. The society sent out missionaries to start congregations and convert Native Americans and African slaves. Although the missionaries had mixed success with the southern Yamasee and northern Iroquois tribes, they made more progress in converting and baptizing slaves. In New England the society spent much of its energy trying to weaken the dominance of Puritans. The middle colonies proved an exceptionally fertile ground, with their large population of recent immigrants who were hungry for religious services conducted by any Protestant minister.

Islam and Catholicism merged with traditions

Some Africans who came to North America were Muslims. Trade networks in northwest Africa had brought the Islamic religion, which drew on Jewish and Christian history and scripture. The Muslims (followers of Islam) viewed Jesus of Nazareth as a minor figure, however, and they believed that Muhammad (the founder of Islam) was the true prophet. Muslims followed the teachings of the Koran (the holy book of Islam), observing dietary restrictions and praying in the direction of Mecca (their holiest city) five times a day. Africans had also been converted to Catholicism by Portuguese explorers.

During the early colonial period many Africans intermingled Islam and Catholicism with their own belief systems. To them, God (the Christian supreme spirit) and Allah (the Muslim supreme spirit) were just different names for the High God (God and Allah are actually the same deity). Mary (the mother of Jesus), Jesus, and Muhammad served the same purpose as lesser gods, and Catholic saints were similar to ancestral spirits. The importance of water in African religious ceremonies prepared them for the sacrament of baptism.

African Americans adapt Protestantism

White masters increasingly pressured their African slaves to accept Christianity—in most cases Protestantism (a branch of Christianity formed in opposition to Catholicism). Nevertheless the masters had no control over how the Africans practiced their new faith, so second- and third-generation African Americans began adapting Protestant teachings to their own traditional religions. They were drawn to Old Testament (the first part of the Bible) stories, such as the captivity of the Hebrews in Egypt, which mirrored their own experience. Africans also embraced the New Testament (the second part of the Bible) image of Christ as the savior of the oppressed. During the Great Awakening, a widespread revival of Protestantism in the mid-eighteenth century, a small percentage of African Americans were converted to Christianity. By this time black preachers were also spreading the Christian message among slaves.

Puritanism

From the earliest years of the colonial period, Puritans dominated all aspects of life in New England, the northeast region of the present-day United States (see Chapter 4). The Puritans were a Protestant Christian group that advocated reform of the Church of England and stressed strict moral and religious codes. They objected to elaborate church rituals that were derived from Roman Catholicism. Puritans adopted many of the teachings of sixteenth-century French reformer John Calvin (1509–1564), who elaborated on the Reform movement started by Martin Luther. Because of their efforts to reform the Anglican Church, the Puritans were subjected to extreme persecution in England. In the early 1600s they began leaving England in search of religious freedom. Many Puritans made their way to America and founded two colonies—Plymouth in 1620 and Massachusetts Bay in 1630—side by side in the southeastern part of New England. However, they held differing views about the Church of England. The Plymouth settlers were Nonconformists (also known as Separatists), who advocated complete separation from the church. The Massachusetts Bay colonists wanted to reform the church and saw no reason to declare total independence.

Puritans follow Calvin

The Puritans immediately put Calvin's teachings into practice. Towns were organized around Puritan congregations (separate groups of church members) that controlled all aspects of life in the colony. The Puritans adopted covenants (solemn and binding agreements), which were patterned on covenants God had made with humans. In the covenant of works, for instance, Adam and Eve (the first man and woman on Earth, according to the Christian Bible) agreed to achieve salvation (the state of being saved from sin) by their own good works (moral behavior). Adam and Eve broke this covenant by sinning, however, and lost God's grace (goodwill). Through the covenant of redemption, Jesus of Nazareth agreed to take upon himself the guilt and sins of all other human beings, thereby restoring them to God's grace. In the covenant of grace, God's spirit entered certain people, called the "elect," who had been predestined (chosen by God) for salvation.

According to the Puritans, God also made covenants with groups of people, such as Abraham (an important Hebrew leader in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible) and his descendants. He looked upon these people with special favor if they tried to obey his will. The Puritans believed they were one of these favored groups—they often referred to themselves as "saints"—so they created their own covenants that regulated every function of society. Taken together, these separate covenants formed society's covenant with God, who was quick to punish anyone who violated the agreement.

Simplicity stressed by Puritans

Puritan leaders were a few "elect" men who had achieved salvation, and church membership was limited to those who could prove they had been saved. The Puritans believed that people could be saved by hearing and understanding the word of God with the help of an ordained minister. A Puritan church (also called a meetinghouse) was a plain, square building without a steeple (a tall structure, or tower, on the roof), stained-glass windows, or ornaments of any kind. The Puritans rejected these features, which could be found in Anglican churches, as being too much like the elaborate cathedrals built by the Roman Catholic Church. Worshipers sat on hard, wooden benches (pews) facing the minister, who often stood on a raised platform. Although worship services were held throughout the week, the major service was on Sunday. It was a lengthy and formal event with a two-hour sermon (minister's lecture) that opened and closed with long prayers. Worshipers stood during the prayers and throughout much of the service. Sometimes the congregation would take a lunch break after the morning service and return for another session in the afternoon. Singing or chanting psalms (songpoems from the Bible) was allowed, but with no musical accompaniment (an instrumental or vocal part designed to support a melody). A person called a "liner" would sing a line, and the congregation would repeat it in whatever tunes individuals chose to follow.

Community enforces covenants

Since the Puritans lived close together, they observed one another to make sure everyone obeyed the covenants. As a result, there was no privacy in Puritan communities. If trouble arose in a family, church elders (leaders who were not ordained ministers) would take action. They had the authority to remove children and servants from households that did not meet community standards. The husband was the head of the household and represented the family at public and church events. He was also responsible for raising his children in a strict manner to save them from the temptations of Satan (another name for the Devil). A woman obeyed her husband and supervised private household affairs. Puritans assumed that the Bible provided all necessary laws for a moral society, so they did not write an official set of laws until 1641. They also established schools to ensure that everyone could read the Bible. In 1636 Harvard College opened its doors in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to prepare Puritans for the ministry. (It was the first institution of higher learning in the colonies.)

Since Puritans frowned on any activities that did not glorify God, they had strict rules against dancing, card playing, drinking alcohol, and other "immoral" or "frivolous" pastimes. They did not observe the holy days traditionally celebrated in the Catholic Church and the Church of England—not even Christmas (the celebration of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth) and Easter (the commemoration of Jesus's resurrection, or rising from the dead). They thought the Catholic Church had simply made up religious holidays to fit the dates of pagan (non-Christian) rituals so it would be easier to convert nonbelievers to Christianity.

Influence declines

The Puritans' strict rules often caused conflicts with those who did not share their beliefs. Challenges to Puritan control gained momentum with the arrival of new colonists. By 1660 non-Puritans were pouring into New England in greater numbers, seeking economic opportunity rather than joining the religious community. Church membership declined rapidly, and soon few could claim to be saved. In desperation, some Puritan churches adopted the Half-Way Covenant, whereby children of any baptized person could be admitted to the church regardless of whether their parents were church members. Others took the Presbyterian position that anyone who led a moral life could join the church. In 1692 Massachusetts Bay was placed under a royal charter (direct control of the English monarch) with Plymouth, forming the single colony of Massachusetts. The Puritans were now New Englanders, and their religion became known as Congregationalism.

"the young brood doth much afflict me"

Puritan children were brought up in a strict religious environment. Parents were responsible for teaching their children to read and write so they could understand the Bible, and the community enforced rigid moral codes. Nevertheless church leaders worried about the "ungodliness" of young people. For instance, in 1657 Ezekiel Rogers, a Puritan preacher, expressed dismay over the behavior of the "rising generation" in a letter to a fellow minister in England. Rogers confided that he could not find any servants—most of whom were fourteen to eighteen or nineteen years old—who would set a good moral example. He wrote:

Do your children and family grow more godly? I find the greatest trouble and grief about the rising generation. Young people are little stirred [to godly behavior] here; but they strengthen one another in evil by example and by counsel [talking among themselves]. Much ado have I with my own family; hard to get a servant that is glad of catechizing [receiving religious instruction] or family duties. I had a rare blessing of servants in Yorkshire [England], and those that I brought over were a blessing, but the young brood doth much afflict me. Even the children of the godly here, and elsewhere make woful proof [of following Puritan teachings].

Reprinted in: Earle, Alice Morse. Child Life in Colonial Days. New York: Macmillan, 1899; reprinted, Stockbridge, Mass.: Berkshire House Publishers, 1993, p. 235.

Congregationalism

Traditional Puritanism had declined by the early 1700s and was replaced by Congregationalism. The

Praying Villages

New England colonists made a widespread effort to convert and "civilize" Native Americans during the seventeenth century. Most of the activity took place in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where English Puritan missionary John Eliot established fourteen "praying villages" for Christian natives. He initiated his project in 1649, with funding from A Corporation for the Promoting and Propagating the Gospel among the Indians of New England, a missionary organization based in London, England. Eliot had an ambitious mission. He believed converted Native Americans should become independent and adopt the European way of life—live in houses, wear European-style clothes, and own land. He envisioned the settlements as self-governing Puritan villages, where Native Americans would be free to manage their own affairs under Massachusetts Bay laws. In 1651 the first town of "praying Indians" was established at Natick. The first Native American church was also founded at Natick in 1660 and was active until 1716. In 1663 Eliot published a Bible in the Algonquian language. Native American conversion thrived in Massachusetts until it was stifled by Metacom's War (1675–76; also known as King Philip's War). This devastating conflict between the colonists and the Wampanoag broke out when a Christian Native American was murdered, possibly on orders from the Wampanoag chief Metacom. Although many Christian natives fought for the English colonists, they were mistrusted by Puritans and other Native Americans. Eliot himself came under suspicion for his efforts at segregation. As a result, the number of Christian natives began to decline. In 1674, before the war, there had been about thirty-six hundred converts in the fourteen settlements. When the war ended two years later, the number of "praying villages" had dropped to four and the population of Christianized Native Americans had significantly decreased.

original ideal of the Puritan fathers was that separate congregations would all share the same beliefs and promote the same practices in following church covenants. Yet over time Puritans had broken into separate congregations with different views, and it was difficult for church leaders to maintain unity. Another problem was that congregations no longer placed the welfare of the community above self-interest. They also relaxed standards for admission into church membership—some did not even bother to observe the Half-Way Covenant. In New England coastal cities, merchants chose churches that emphasized leading a private moral life but required no commitment to the community. These churches accepted anyone who professed a Christian belief as members. Even the physical appearance of church buildings had changed, reflecting the growing wealth and sophistication of the congregations. Structures became larger and more luxurious and even featured steeples. Balconies had more seats for worshipers, and tall windows flooded the interior with light. Altars appeared in the front of the church, with an elaborate, winding staircase that led to a pulpit (an elevated platform used in church services) high above the worshipers' heads.

Faced with these dramatic changes, church leaders were worried that Christians had lost their way and salvation was no longer possible. They thought the solution was to impose basic requirements on Congregational churches. One such effort was the Saybrook Platform, which a Connecticut group called the clerical party enacted into law, with the support of the governor, in 1708. It created a Presbyterian-type church organization, with a central council that would oversee county districts. The main council would set standards for local churches, appoint supervisors to implement the standards, and ordain ministers. Yet the colony still had to abide by English law and tolerate other religions, so the Connecticut legislature grudgingly passed a Toleration Act, which few communities actually followed.

Revivalism sweeps congregations

Despite an appearance of order and formality in the churches, many Congregationalists longed for conversion, or an intense personal commitment to the teachings of Jesus. This longing increased with news of the exciting revivals staged by Solomon Stoddard (1643–1729), a pastor in western Massachusetts. Stoddard had abandoned all Puritan church covenants and offered the Lord's Supper (holy communion) as an opportunity for conversion. He also advocated a Presbyterian-style organization. But he was most famous for his powerful sermons, which inspired a spiritual awakening in his listeners. The urge for a new kind of religious experience was heightened by Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758), Stoddard's grandson, who motivated other ministers to stir the souls of their congregations. By 1737, when Edwards published Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God, which described his revivals, awakenings were regular occurrences throughout New England. However, it took the appearance of English evangelist (a minister who preaches conversion) George Whitefield (1714–1770) in 1740 to fan these scattered flames into a roaring fire called the Great Awakening.

Presbyterianism

Many Puritans in New England called themselves Presbyterians. Presbyterianism was a democratic system (demonstrating social equality) of church organization in which ministers and elders formed the governing body in a district. Like Puritanism, Presbyterian beliefs were based on the teachings of French reformer John Calvin. From the beginning Presbyterian leaders worked closely with other Protestant denominations in worship, ministerial education, and mutual support. Congregation members came from Ireland, Scotland, England, Wales, Sweden, Germany, and France. By the early eighteenth century Presbyterians were the fastest-growing religious group in the colonies, primarily because of a large number of Irish immigrants (people who move from one country to another). Waves of Irish Presbyterians first flooded into the middle and southern colonies, which tolerated their religious beliefs, and then flowed into the unoccupied western regions.

Churches isolated

Most of these immigrants lived on isolated farms, so they had to travel some distance to attend services. They usually formed small congregations that often had trouble supporting a minister. Before a congregation could hire a minister, each family pledged a contribution to his salary in the form of food, firewood, or money. If this was not sufficient, two or three congregations shared a minister and conducted their own worship services when he was visiting another church. Larger congregations relied on pew rents (rental of church benches), with more desirable pews going for a higher fee. Worship services were similar to those of the early Puritans in New England, except that several congregations might join in the Lord's Supper. Sometimes this event lasted for two days. One minister would preach a sermon of preparation, after which local clergy would dispense communion tokens to worthy members. The tokens were used as tickets to sit at chosen tables, which were roped off to keep out the "undeserving."

Struggle to define beliefs

Forming an American denomination was a great challenge. Presbyterians found themselves divided on such

Makemie Organizes

The Irish Presbyterian minister Francis Makemie (c. 1658–c. 1707) is credited with joining scattered American congregations into an organized denomination. A tireless traveler, he first journeyed throughout the colonies and down to Barbados in 1683, preaching and organizing churches as he went. In 1706 he organized the first presbytery (a representative gathering of ministers and church elders) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which was attended by seven local ministers and their elders. Within ten years there were four presbyteries and a synod (central council) operating in the colonies. A few months after the first presbytery meeting, Makemie became the center of attention when Edward Hyde, Viscount Cornbury—the governor of New York—had him arrested for preaching without a license. Makemie's defense was that he had been granted a license as a dissenting minister in Barbados, which was valid in all British domains. The court acquitted him, but a vengeful Cornbury ordered him to pay the entire cost of the trial. New Yorkers were so incensed that the assembly passed a law prohibiting such assessments and Cornbury was recalled in disgrace. By this time Makemie had died, but many dissenters had moved into the Presbyterian fold.

issues as whether to adopt the Westminster Confession of Faith. The Westminster Confession of Faith (or creed) was established by the Presbyterian-controlled British Parliament (lawmaking body) at the Westminster Assembly (1643–49) as the basis of church doctrine (policy and teachings). The creed recognized the absolute authority of God and the Bible in government, morality, and religion. English Presbyterians accepted baptism and communion, but they opposed the intervention of the church in state affairs. Many American colonists accepted these views, while others objected to having a man-made creed, as opposed to one from God (i.e., the Bible). Debates raged from 1721 until 1729, when the American synod (central council) adopted the Westminster Confession as a guide to church government, but they did not require individual congregations to adopt it.

Presbyterians spark revivals

Presbyterians remained loosely organized into the 1720s, but they were united in their desire to convert others to their beliefs. Around 1726, a young minister in New Jersey named Gilbert Tennent (1703–1764) became acquainted with Theodorus Frelinghuysen, a neighboring Dutch Reformed clergyman. Frelinghuysen was holding religious meetings called revivals, where he preached emotional sermons and urged personal conversion. Tennent wanted to start his own revivals and was soon joined by his brothers and a few others who had been tutored by Gilbert's father, William Tennent (1673–1746), in what was later known as the "Log College." Along with Frelinghuysen they intruded on the congregations of neighboring churches, accusing clergymen of being unqualified to lead others to salvation. Several of Tennent's followers could not meet the educational requirements for ministers set by the Westminster Directory in England, so they fought to have the requirements abolished.

Many sympathized with their position, since lowering standards would make more ministers available for vacant Presbyterian churches. In 1738 the synod compromised by passing the Examination Act, which required ministerial candidates without a university degree to be approved by a synod committee. In 1746 the Presbyterians founded the interdenominational (open to all religious groups) College of New Jersey at Elizabethtown for the training of Presbyterian ministers. The school was moved to Princeton, New Jersey, in 1754 and was officially named Princeton College in the 1760s. (It is now Princeton University.)

Baptists

In 1639 Roger Williams (1603?–1683) and fellow refugees from the Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony founded the first Baptist (a shortened form of Anabaptist) church in America. They rejected infant baptism, which was practiced in all Christian churches at that time. Williams and his followers believed that only adults were capable of understanding the true meaning of the commitment to lead a life according to the teachings of Christ. They therefore advocated adult baptism, which involved immersion in a river or stream as a way to be cleansed of past sins and start a new life.

Diverse groups formed

By the 1700s the Baptist Church was composed of several groups. Among them were the General Baptists (also known as Six Principle Baptists) from England, who believed in free will (the idea that all people can make voluntary choices or decisions independently of God). They settled mainly in Rhode Island and formed a yearly meeting in 1700 to serve as an advisory board for their numerous churches. Another group, called Particular Baptists, came from Wales and advocated a doctrine of predestination (belief that God has determined one's earthly fate by divine decree). They worked closely with the Presbyterians, who also believed in predestination. The Philadelphia Baptist Association soon attracted other newly organized churches in Virginia and North Carolina. These churches had a strong representation of General Baptists, who later changed their name to Regular Baptists.

Baptism

In 1639 Roger Williams and fellow refugees from the Puritan Massachusetts Bay Colony formed what is called the first Baptist church in America. The name originated from the baptismal experience, which was the center of Baptist beliefs. After an individual had undergone a spiritual conversion, or awakening, the congregation would witness as he or she was submerged in a river or stream. Upon emerging from the water, the person would be cleansed of past sins and ready to start a new life and relationship with God. This practice had its roots in biblical accounts of John the Baptist, the Jewish prophet who preceded Jesus. He was baptizing people as they awaited the new Messiah, whom Christians believed was embodied by Jesus.

Baptists support Great Awakening

Baptist congregations remained small and relatively weak until after the Great Awakening, a series of revivals (intensely emotional religious meetings) in the early 1740s. This movement had a profound impact on all Protestant denominations in the colonies. The message of the Great Awakening was that conversion (a personal commitment to the teachings of Jesus) was the only genuine Christian experience. A true religious conversion, revivalists argued, is the result of a new spiritual awareness that comes when an individual can understand the meaning and importance of a religious life. Revivalists also protested against requiring churches to hire educated and ordained ministers and supporting the ministers with taxes. These views struck a responsive chord in New England, Virginia, and other areas where established (officially organized) churches were the center of society. In New England groups calling themselves the "New Light" separated from established congregations and formed voluntary churches. The Baptists adopted this new style of church formation, creating an environment that encouraged the revivalists. The most influential "New Light" leader was New Connecticut clergyman Isaac Backus (1724–1806), who was converted in 1742 and launched a half-century of service. He was instrumental in educating Baptists about their history and the cause of religious freedom. His efforts bore fruit throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as traveling evangelicals took their message to the southern colonies.

Lutheranism

Lutheranism arose as a result of the Protestant Reformation initiated by German reformer Martin Luther (1483–1546) in the 1520s against the Roman Catholic Church. Charging that Catholicism was corrupt, he left the church when he realized that reform was not possible. According to Luther, salvation comes only to those who have faith in God's mercy (willingness to forgive sins), which leads to a new life based on the teachings of Christ. Luther argued that the Bible was the only source of knowledge about God, so Christians had to be able to read the Scriptures for themselves. Therefore salvation could not come from being moral, doing good works, or relying on the assistance of priests. All of these ideas were contrary to the teachings of the Catholic Church, which relied on priests, bishops, and rituals for interpretation of the Scriptures, forgiveness of sin, and rewards for doing good works.

Although Luther rejected Catholicism, his new religion retained some of the same beliefs. Like the Catholics, for instance, Luther considered all human institutions, including government, to be ordained by God. Luther also accepted the Catholic view that during the sacrament of the Eucharist (holy communion; the Lord's Supper), Christ was actually present in the bread and wine taken by church members. (In holy communion, bread represents the body of Christ and wine is his blood.) Luther's reform movement quickly spread throughout Europe, inspiring numerous sects (small religious groups) that became Protestant denominations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Luther's ideas strongly influenced the French reformer John Calvin, whose system of religious doctrines was adopted by the Puritans.

Lutherans among earliest settlers

The first Lutherans in America were Swedes who settled New Sweden, which was founded by the West India Company on the banks of the Delaware River in 1638. New Sweden was served by a continuous line of ministers, the most famous of whom was John Campanius (1601–1683), a missionary to Native Americans who translated Luther's catechism (religious instructions) into the Delaware language. The church went into decline after Dutch colonists in New Netherland drove the Swedes out of New Sweden in 1655. The English took over New Netherland and renamed it New York in 1664, and the Swedes then came under the control of the English. When the king of Sweden realized Lutheran churches in the colonies had no ministers, he sent a large supply of books and three ministers, who arrived in 1697. They established the Holy Trinity at Tranhook Church near Wilmington, Delaware, and Gloria Dei at Wicaco near Philadelphia. For seventy-five years all national branches of the Lutheran Church were supervised by a provost, or personal deputy of the archbishop of Sweden, who was allowed to ordain ministers.

By 1719 fourteen Lutheran churches had been established in America, but there was only one minister for all of them. Deacons and overseers (church leaders who are not ordained ministers) were running congregations when a great wave of German immigrants began arriving in the colonies. Most of them settled in Pennsylvania. The loosely organized congregations were prime targets for small religious sects that appeared in the colonies around the same time. American Lutherans appealed to Europe for more ministers, but their requests went unheeded. Finally, Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf (1700–1760) arrived in 1741. Although he was an ordained Lutheran minister, he was more interested in promoting Moravian beliefs, and he placed Moravian ministers in Lutheran churches.

Mühlenberg unites Lutherans

In 1742 Henry Melchior Mühlenberg (1711–1787), a German Lutheran missionary, arrived in Pennsylvania to take over three congregations. He found them occupied by others, including von Zinzendorf. Within a month Mühlenberg had reclaimed all three, and within six years he had organized Swedish and German pastors and delegates in the Pennsylvania Ministerium. This central organization had the authority to ordain ministers, form churches, and prepare a book of common prayer (the text used in all Lutheran worship services). At the next meeting the group elected Mühlenberg as overseer of all Swedish and German Lutheran churches. He held this office for many years, expanding Lutheranism in America. The shortage of ministers continued, however, and congregations often held simple services in homes and barns.

Dutch Reformed Church

The Dutch Reformed Church was the state church of Holland (the Netherlands) and was governed by the Classis of Amsterdam (main church council). Like Puritanism, the church was based on the teachings of French religious reformer John Calvin. The first Dutch Reformed congregation arrived in America when the Dutch West India Company established trading outposts in New Netherland in 1624. However, the first ordained minister did not reach the colony until five years later, so the congregation was led by laymen (unordained church leaders) called Krankenbesoeckers (comforters of the sick). For several years the church coexisted with other denominations in the interest of attracting settlers. When the English took over New Netherland and renamed it New York in 1664, there were twelve struggling Dutch Reformed congregations and six ministers, three of whom left immediately. Yet the church grew, spreading into New Jersey and Pennsylvania and welcoming Dutch Reformed or Presbyterian preachers. In the early 1740s the American church seriously considered joining with the Presbyterians. The union did not take place, however, because Dutch Reformed leaders insisted that services be conducted in the Dutch language. Yet in New York several Dutch ministers used the English language and even adopted the worship service of the Anglican Church.

Dutch Reformed churches in New Jersey went in a new direction after the arrival of Dutch preacher Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen. In 1735 he and two other preachers spurred a series of spontaneous revivals with evangelical (being in agreement with the Christian gospel) sermons in Dutch and a minimum of ritual. They also criticized established clergymen as "lifeless formalists" (those who rely too much on set rituals and teachings). Dutch Reformed congregations began to split into two warring factions—those who supported the traditional church and others who were attracted to the revival movement. This development forced the Amsterdam Classis in 1748 to establish a coetus (governing council) in America with the power to ordain its own ministers. The church was granted more independence after 1750.

Judaism

Judaism (the religious beliefs, practices, and way of life of Jews) was introduced in America by Dutch Jews who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1654. (New Amsterdam was renamed New York city by the English when they took over New Netherland in 1664; see Chapter 4.) Jews share many traditions with Christians, but they do not view Jesus of Nazereth as the Messiah and son of God. Jewish laws and customs are based on the Torah (the five books of Moses). Thirty-four other books were later added from the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament by Christians). Jews had been active in the Dutch West India Company settlement in Brazil but were expelled when the Portuguese retook the post. The Netherlands had provided a place of refuge for Sephardic Jews (those of Iberian, or Spanish, descent) after they were expelled from Spain in 1492 and from Portugal in 1496. In the Netherlands they flourished as merchants and tradesmen. Initially there were no rabbis (Jews trained and ordained for professional religious leadership) among the Jews who emigrated to America. This fact did not present an obstacle, however, because only ten adult males were needed to form a synagogue (congregation).

As soon as Jews were granted the right to public worship in New York City in the late 1600s, they established a congregation. By 1729 they had built a house of worship. Other Jews arrived in small groups, especially after 1740, when the British Parliament allowed them to become naturalized citizens. They moved to other colonies, but were declined political rights because they were not Christians and could not take oaths on the Bible. They settled primarily in coastal cities and practiced their faith quietly. Cantors (chief singers during Jewish worship) took on the role of ministers, and well-educated congregation members preserved the teachings and traditions of Judaism. Many settled in Rhode Island, where they organized a synagogue, built a school, and started a social club. At the end of the colonial period the Jewish community in Rhode Island included about two hundred people. The first of the English colonies to provide religious toleration for Jews was Carolina (later South Carolina; see Chapter 4). Four shop-keepers were granted citizenship between 1697 and 1698. Sephardic Jews from London, England, and the West Indies arrived in Charleston, South Carolina, in the late 1730s. In 1740, they were joined by Jews fleeing Savannah, Georgia, who had heard rumors of a Spanish invasion (see "Georgia" in Chapter 4). In 1749, the Jewish community organized a Sephardic-rite synagogue, Beth Elohim. Around two hundred Jews lived in Charleston by the end of the colonial period.

German Reform Church

The German Reform Church was a Protestant religion similar to the Dutch Reformed Church, and their histories were intertwined. The German church was established in the Palatinate and Rhineland provinces and overseen by a council called the Heidelberg Reform Group. European wars in the early eighteenth century drove many Germans to the middle colonies, mainly Pennsylvania. Because few of the immigrants came to America as organized religious groups, they had no ministers. For instance, an early German Reform Church was started in 1719 in Germantown, Pennsylvania, but it operated without a minister. Other churches were built as community centers, with schoolmasters and laymen conducting services.

In 1727 the Amsterdam Classis took responsibility for the German Reform Church. In 1746 the Classis sent German minister Michael Schlatter to the colonies to organize the church. Within a year he had brought together four ministers and twenty-seven elders representing twelve churches to form a coetus that would meet annually. Although the German Reform Church could not ordain ministers and was still under the control of Dutch Reformed headquarters in the Netherlands, it was on a firmer foundation. Schlatter went on to organize congregations from northern New Jersey to the backwoods of Virginia.

Society of Friends

The Society of Friends (also known as Quakerism) was founded during the mid-1600s by English religious leader George Fox (1624–1691). The name "Quaker" reportedly originated when Fox was ridiculed for telling a judge to "tremble [quake] at the words of the Lord." Quakers were persecuted in England, so they sought religious freedom in other countries. The first Quakers in America settled in the tolerant Rhode Island colony, and from there they sent missionaries to Puritan New England. They preached and paraded in the streets, mocked the clergy, and challenged the Puritan way of life. Quakers believed that all humans possessed the "Inner Light" of Christ, which was more important than the Scriptures. They ordained no ministers, held no formal worship services, and recognized no sacraments (holy rituals such as baptism and communion). Instead, men and women alike gathered and spoke at the prompting of the Inner Light. Believing in the equality of all people, the Friends recognized no hierarchy (social class system) and refused to engage in customary social rituals, such as tipping their hats in the presence of their betters. They dressed plainly without any ornamentation to signify that the material life was unimportant. They refused to bear arms (carry weapons in war) or to take the oaths required in courts of law.

Pennsylvania founded for Quakers

In 1681 William Penn (1644–1718), a prominent English Quaker, founded Pennsylvania as a model colony based on the Friends' beliefs (see Chapter 4). Penn traveled throughout Europe, inviting Quakers to settle in Pennsylvania and offering generous grants of land. He guaranteed freedom of thought with his Frame of Government and, later, the Charter of Liberties. The right to vote and hold office in the assembly (lawmaking body) was open to almost every free man, and oaths were not required. Penn also set the tone for relations with Native Americans, treating them with the same respect he accorded fellow colonists.

Quaker meetings

Friends gathered at least once a week, usually in simple meetinghouses but also in private homes and barns. The meetinghouses were plain, rectangular buildings with windows high in the walls, which were often whitewashed to heighten spiritual intensity. They were also sparsely furnished, with no pulpit, altar, or ornaments of any kind. Members arrived quietly, with men and women entering through separate doors and sitting apart. Seating was by order of arrival, not rank, except for the elders (church leaders). A time of silence allowed everyone to turn inward and listen to their Inner Light. As the spirit moved them, men, women, and children stood and spoke. When there seemed to be no more messages, the elders rose and shook hands, and the meeting ended. Those who had a gift for speaking of the spirit and leading others to contact the Inner Light were called Public Friends (ministers). These men and women traveled around the colonies, ministering to Quakers and non-Quakers alike.

Quaker Children

Quaker families relied on spiritual love rather than strict discipline to maintain harmony in the home. Parents were openly affectionate toward their children, whom they regarded as innocent and incapable of sin until at least eleven years old. Then they used rewards and reason to encourage proper behavior. Quakers devoted little attention to giving children a formal education, other than teaching them to read and write so they could work in practical trades. Quakers felt that too much book learning might obscure the Inner Light. Adolescence was the most dangerous time, for Quakers viewed sexual desire as a sin. Young people were watched closely by the elders and forbidden to have physical contact. They could marry within the faith, but only with their parents' consent.

A crisis among Friends

In 1689 the Society of Friends underwent a crisis when Scottish Quaker George Keith (c. 1638–1716) arrived in Philadelphia from New Jersey. He set out to purify the faith by imposing stricter discipline. He demanded that Quakers adopt a creed, test the religious faith of members who attended meetings, and rely more directly on the Scriptures. His followers even organized separate meetings, calling themselves Christian Quakers and causing a split among the Pennsylvania Quakers. In 1692 Penn denounced Keith, who went back to England, where he was forced out of the Society of Friends. After becoming an Anglican, he returned to Pennsylvania as a missionary with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (see box on page 297).

Keith's charges struck a nerve among the Friends, however, who responded by acting on many of his suggestions. Meeting groups appointed overseers who asked members standardized questions to test their faith. The Philadelphia Yearly Meeting prepared papers on discipline and practice, which all of the lower meetings (congregations) were directed to follow. Special quarterly meetings were instituted where children were to be drilled in their duties. "Weighty Friends" (wealthy and respected elders) took a greater role at meetings where Public Friends had once been dominant.

Prosperity changes way of life

By the 1740s prosperity was taking a toll on the Quaker way of life as wealthy merchants built bigger homes and purchased finely crafted household furnishings. They acquired wardrobes made with the best and most expensive fabrics—but still in dark colors and with no ornamentation. Young people began engaging in more games and social activities, often with non-Quakers, and some married outside the faith. Although Friends refused to bear arms, government officials were under increasing pressure to vote for military spending to defend the western frontier from Native American attacks. The resulting political conflict led the Quakers to withdraw and let non-Quakers govern the colony.

Moravians

Many American colonists belonged to pietist sects, or small groups that rejected formal religion. They emphasized individual study of the Bible and intense spiritual experience. Generally the pietist sects were offshoots of Lutheranism, and most started coming to the colonies from central European countries, such as Switzerland and Germany, in the late 1600s. These groups were welcomed by the Quakers of Pennsylvania, who were committed to religious toleration.

Among the more prominent pietist sects were the Moravians, or the Renewed Church of the United Brethren. It is difficult to categorize Moravians, but they seem to have functioned like a sect. They concentrated on awakening Christians to a spiritual awareness that transcended denominations. According to the Moravians, once people had had the ecstatic experience of union with God, they could be assured of salvation. The first Moravian immigrants arrived in Georgia in 1735 to minister to Native Americans and slaves. Because they were pacifists (those who oppose war), they were forced to leave and moved into Pennsylvania. Zinzendorf joined them in 1741 and founded several missionary towns. Over the next decade many Moravians went to North Carolina.

Embrace early Christian practices

Moravians revived such early Christian practices as the love feast and foot washing. They held land and property in common and worked in small groups organized by age and sex. Women had considerable control over their own lives, an unusual practice for the time. Moravians supported extensive missionary networks that ministered to Native Americans with great success. Initially they enjoyed good relations with other pietist sects and Reformed denominations because they were willing to follow local religious customs wherever they were preaching. Later, however, they were suspected of trying to steal members from established congregations. The Moravians joined early revivalists (those preaching a renewal of Christian commitment) in the 1730s prior to the Great Awakening but then split with them over philosophical issues. The Moravians increasingly turned their focus inward toward their own settlements, eventually separating themselves from neighboring communities.

Great Awakening

The Great Awakening was the most significant religious event in the American colonies during the eighteenth century. It was sparked by George Whitefield (pronounced Whitfield), an English Anglican minister who had become famous for sermons in which he attacked the Anglican Church. In his electrifying speeches he hurled charges at the Anglican clergy, accusing them of relying on outdated doctrines and neglecting the spiritual welfare of their congregations. Soon after being ordained he was barred from preaching in Anglican churches. He therefore held outdoor revival meetings (religious events based on spontaneous spiritual awakening) in England, Scotland, and Ireland, where he attracted huge crowds.

Whitefield was a marvelous performer. He acted out his speeches and created imaginary dialogues with biblical characters in tones that carried to the farthest edges of the crowd. He shouted, stomped, sang, and always wept. People regarded his cross-eyed stare as a sign of a supernatural presence that enabled him to keep one eye on heaven and the other on hell. Whitefield's message was simple: "Repent and you will be saved." He did not understand theology (religious philosophy), which he considered unimportant to his mission of driving people to seek salvation.

Dunkers

The Church of the Brethren, a pietist sect, received the name "Dunkers" because they believed in complete immersion in a stream or river during baptism. They arrived in Pennsylvania from Germany in 1719. A prominent Dunker leader was Christopher Sower, who established Sunday schools and a printing press that issued a German-language newspaper and an edition of Martin Luther's Bible. It was the second Bible printed in America; the first was John Eliot's Bible in the Algonquian language. Perhaps the most colorful Dunker was Johann Conrad Beissel, who established the Ephrata Cloister in 1720. Beissel's group believed that Adam originally had the feminine quality of wisdom and the male attribute of divinity in equal proportions. This balance was disturbed, however, after Eve was created from one of Adam's ribs. The result was that men and women were doomed to having sexual desires. The Ephrata Dunkers believed that only by rising above sexuality could humans return to unity with God. Therefore, Ephrata brothers (men) and sisters (women) lived separately, performing their unique but equal tasks. The group ran a printing press, painted illuminated manuscripts, and composed and performed musical works. The Ephrata Cloister also served as a cultural center for Germans in Pennsylvania.

Colonies eager for rebirth

In 1739 Whitefield embarked on a tour of the colonies, where revival efforts were already under way in New England and the middle colonies. One of the first to use publicity to his advantage, Whitefield had sent out press releases (notices printed in newspapers) that described his miraculous conversion of masses of people. (Conversion is a personal commitment to follow the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the founder of Christianity). By the time Whitefield arrived in Philadelphia, he was already a celebrity among eager revivalists who were clamoring to hear his message. Philadelphians rushed to meet this "boy preacher" (he was only twenty-five years old). He toured through Pennsylvania and New York, usually preaching outdoors and attacking the clergy of established denominations. Whitefield then set out for the southern colonies, traveling through Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, where he started an orphanage. He was greeted enthusiastically wherever he went—the Great Awakening had swept America.

Famous Sermon

New England preacher Jonathan Edwards was one of the leaders of the Great Awakening. His "fire and brimstone" approach to salvation reached a peak in 1741, when he delivered his most famous sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." Edwards stunned his listeners with a graphic picture of the uncertain nature of life and the eternal punishment awaiting unrepentant sinners. Now considered a masterpiece of public speaking, "Sinners" bombarded the audience with frightening images of a hell filled with tormented souls who burned eternally like live coals. Edwards compared sinners to a spider dangling from a single silken thread held fast only by God, who had every reason to let them drop unless they asked him for forgiveness. During George Whitefield's tour throughout the colonies, Edwards was invited to preach, and each time he presented "Sinners." His audiences were convulsed in "great moaning," crying out, "What shall I do to be saved—oh I am going to Hell!" So intense was their anguish that Edwards had to stop several times whenever he delivered the sermon. He eventually published "Sinners" to great acclaim.

Edwards fuels revival

On a return trip to New England, Whitefield went to Boston, Massachusetts. There he met Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758), the famous Congregationalist preacher, who soon moved to the forefront of the Great Awakening. Impressed by Whitefield's success in lifting Christians out of their "lethargy" (lack of religious fervor), Edwards invited the reformer to preach to his congregation at Northampton, Massachusetts. Edwards's own "fire and brimstone" approach to salvation reached its peak in 1741, when he delivered his most famous sermon, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."

Whitefield causes splits

By the time Whitefield returned to England in 1740, evangelical magazines had sprung up throughout the colonies to praise his amazing success. He had had the most effect on Presbyterians in the middle colonies and the Congregationalists in New England. Eventually Whitefield became notorious for his abusiveness, however, and critics accused him of engaging in self-promotion. In fact, he had been instrumental in splitting congregations and producing wounds that would not be healed for years. On a later trip to the colonies Whitefield actually apologized for his excessive behavior.

Awakening changes America

By 1743 the emotionalism of the revivals had already begun to die down. Yet the Great Awakening had an impact on all of the colonial denominations and sects. It created a new awareness of individual religious experience, as people began defining their own beliefs rather than accepting the views of church authorities. Churches formed interdenominational networks that helped break down isolation. Baptists and Presbyterians spread into New England and the South, which had once been strongholds of Congregationalism and Anglicanism. There was an outburst of missionary activity among Native Americans and African slaves, as well as a growing movement against slavery. The Great Awakening also led to the founding of several colleges, such as Princeton, which were initially intended to educate ministers and then became liberal-arts institutions. Perhaps one of the most significant developments was increased opposition to the Anglican Church, which represented English control of the colonies. A democratic spirit was emerging in religion, and this spirit soon rippled into other aspects of colonial life. In fact, some historians regard the Great Awakening as the key to the society that later started the American Revolution.