Judaism

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Judaism

Estimates of the number of black people in the United States who consider themselves Jews or Hebrews range from 40,000 to 500,000. These people can be divided into three groups: individuals who convert to Judaism and join predominantly white congregations, often as a result of intermarriage, such as Julius Lester and the late Sammy Davis Jr.; African Americans who trace their Jewish heritage back to slavery and who worship in either black or white synagogues; and blacks whose attraction to Judaism is based on a racial identification with the biblical Hebrews.

The third group is by far the largest, but it is made up of many independent denominations that have a wide variety of beliefs and practices. The best known are the Black Jews of Harlem, the Temple Beth-El congregations, the Nation of Yahweh, the Original Hebrew Israelite Nation, the Israeli School of Universal Practical Knowledge, the Church of God, and the Nubian Islamic Hebrews. Reconstructionist Black Jews and Rastafarians are two groups whose relationship to Judaism or Hebrewism is so limited that they are best thought of as movements basically rooted in Christianity that have an affinity to the Old Testament and Jewish symbols.

Each of the major groups is unique and will be discussed separately, although they generally have the following characteristics in common: They believe that the ancient Hebrews were black people, that they are their descendants, and that their immediate ancestors were forcibly converted from Judaism to Christianity during slavery. In addition, they believe that they are not converts to Judaism but have discovered or returned to their true religion. On the other hand, they believe that white Jews are either converts to their way of life, descendants of one of the biblical people who they believe started the white race (Edomites, Canaanites, Japhites, or lepers), or that they are imposters altogether. This is the principal reason that some groups consider the term "Jew" anathema and insist on the biblical terms Hebrew or Israelite, or more commonly, Hebrew Israelite. They believe that the enslavement of and discrimination against African Americans were predicted in the Bible and are therefore a combination of divine punishment upon the children of Israel for their sins and the result of the blatant aggression of white people. Hebrew Israelites are messianic and believe that when the messiah comes, retribution will be handed down upon all sinners—but particularly upon white people for their oppression of people of color. Beyond these similarities—which a few Hebrew Israelites strongly oppose—the groups can differ widely according to the degree to which they follow rabbinic traditions, use Hebrew, conduct services, follow dress codes, and incorporate Christian or Islamic beliefs into their theology.

There have been three main phases in the use of elements of the Jewish religion in African-American worship. From exposure to evangelical Protestantism in the early nineteenth century, many African Americans identified with the enslavement, emancipation, and nation building of the Hebrews as depicted in the Bible. Old Testament imagery was a staple of sermons and spirituals. The best known of the latter is undoubtedly "Go Down, Moses," in which the release of the Hebrews from Egyptian captivity is seen as a sign of the redemption of blacks from slavery. This connection to the Jewish people, often strengthened by connections to Pan-African movements such as the one led by Marcus Garvey, provided the impetus for more formal identification as Jews, often outside of a Christian context, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Since the 1960s, another period of active black nationalism, there has been renewed identification with elements of the Jewish religion by a number of African-American religious groups. Many of these groups are quite eclectic in their theology and religious borrowings, and are often hostile to mainstream Judaism.

The Black Jews of Harlem is one of the oldest, largest, and best known Hebrew Israelite groups in the United States. The denomination was founded in New York City by Rabbi Arnold J. Ford (1877–1935) and Rabbi Wentworth Arthur Matthew (1892–1973). Ford was the musical director of Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). The Black Jews based their nationalism of Ethiopianism on the belief that biblical prophecies about Ethiopia, notably Psalm 68:31 "Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands," referred to Ethiopia in connection with the regathering of the Children of Israel as applied specifically to black people. To achieve this Ford tried to create a black Jewish denomination based on beliefs and customs he learned from European Jews. During the early period the group used the term Ethiopian Hebrew rather than Hebrew Israelite. Also, whereas Ford and Matthew emphatically believed that the ancient Hebrews were black, they were less certain about the origins of white Jews and would sometimes refer to them as "our fairer brothers."

In 1923 Ford opened a congregation called Beth B'nai Abraham (House of the Children of Abraham) for black people in Harlem. Rabbi Matthew, who had founded The Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem four years earlier, became Ford's student. In 1933 Ford ordained Matthew before leaving for Ethiopia, where he lived the remainder of his life. Matthew quickly instituted the Jewish knowledge he gained from Ford into his services. In the late 1940s he created the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College in New York City, where he trained and ordained twenty-two other rabbis who carried their blend of black nationalist and orthodox European Judaism to black communities throughout the United States and the Caribbean. By the 1990s, this community was being led by two students of Matthew: Rabbi Levi Ben Levy, who is the chief rabbi of the Israelite Board of Rabbis, and Rabbi Yhoshua Ben Yahonatan, who is the president of the Israelite Council. The rabbis and congregation affiliated with these bodies have limited but cordial relations with mainstream white Jewish congregations in New York. The Black Jews generally conduct their services in both Hebrew and English, observe Jewish holidays such as Hanukkah and Purim, the high holy days, and ceremonies such as Bar and Bat Mitzvah. By the early 1990s, the size of the group was probably less than five thousand, though higher estimates are sometimes given.

The Temple Beth-El congregations, also known as the Church of God and Saints of Christ (CGSC), were founded by William Saunders Crowdy (1847–1908). Crowdy was born a slave and fought in the Civil War. In 1893 he had a prophetic vision on his farm in Guthrie, Oklahoma, that told him to start a new church that had no affiliation with any religious denomination. The specific doctrines of the church evolved over time and were based on Crowdy's revelations, which he called the "Seven Keys." Crowdy taught that black people were part of the "lost tribes of Israel" and that the Hebraic Laws of the Old Testament, such as Passover, were to be obeyed. Unlike the Black Jews of Harlem, Crowdy did not abandon the use of the New Testament or a belief in Jesus Christ, and he continued practices such as baptism and ritual foot washing. In 1896 he founded his first church in Lawrence, Kansas. Two years later the first CGSC general assembly was held. By 1900 the church had five thousand members. After his death in 1908 the church suffered a split. As a whole, the church was at its height in 1936, when there were over 213 tabernacles in the United States. By the 1990s the number of tabernacles had declined to fifty-three with seven branches in South Africa. Over the years the Christian component of the Beth-El tabernacle has diminished and the Jewish elements have been augmented. The Temple's national headquarters is in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and its international headquarters is on a five-hundred-acre farm in Suffolk, Virginia. It has an estimated membership of 38,000.

The Church of God was founded by Prophet F. S. Cherry. The anthropologist Arthur Huff Fauset describes this group in Black Gods of the Metropolis (1944). Fauset reports that this group was located at 2132 Nicholas Street in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The church had fewer than three hundred members at its founding in the early twentieth century, and there was no mention of affiliate congregations. All that is known about Prophet Cherry is that he was born in the South and worked as a seaman and on the railroads, which allowed him to travel throughout the United States and to many parts of the world. He was self-educated and taught his followers that they were the original Hebrews. They believed that Jesus was the messiah and used the Old and New Testaments in their services. Hebrew and Yiddish were taught in the church's schools, but white Jews were generally thought to be imposters. Saturday was considered to be the Sabbath Day, but services were also held on Sundays. The group celebrated Passover and did not recognize either Christmas or Easter. The eating of pork was prohibited among members of the group, as was the taking of pictures. Prophet Cherry predicted that the new millennium would take place in the year 2000. Whether the denomination still exists is unknown.

The Nation of Yahweh, also known as the Temple of Love, was founded by Hulon Mitchell (1935–), who calls himself Yahweh Ben Yahweh ("God the Son of God"). Yahweh Ben Yahweh was raised in a Pentecostal church; in the 1960s he joined the Nation of Islam before leaving it to start his congregation of Hebrew Israelites in the 1970s. Members of this group believe that the black people of America are the "lost sheep of the House of Israel." They teach that white people are "real devils" and will be destroyed when God restores black people to power. Members of this group are encouraged to wear long white robes and they use the Star of David—though they also believe in Jesus. They believe that black people should not participate in political processes and that there is a government-sponsored plan to commit genocide against African people. By the 1990s the Nation of Yahweh had congregations in thirty-five cities in the United States. Its headquarters is in the Miami area, where members own many businesses, housing units, a printing press, a fleet of buses, and a school. The Nation of Yahweh has been indicted on a number of state and federal charges ranging from extortion to child abuse. In 1992 its leader, Yahweh Ben Yahweh, was convicted of murder and racketeering and sentenced to prison. His followers saw the conviction as a case of political oppression, and most have remained loyal to the group.

The Original Hebrew Israelite Nation was founded by Ben Ammi Carter in Chicago during the 1960s. They attempt to follow what they conceive of as an ancient form of Judaism that includes polygamy. They have developed a unique garb that resembles African and Middle Eastern attire, which includes colorful robes and knitted skullcaps, or turbans. Members of this group are strict vegetarians and believe that they are witnessing the "end of the Gentile age," which is taken to mean the end of a period of white rule. This is the only group of Hebrew Israelites that is Zionist and has attempted to immigrate to Israel. In 1969 the first of 1,500 Hebrew Israelites left Liberia, where they had established a temporary settlement, to found a permanent settlement in Dimona, Israel. Since their identity as Jews was questioned by Israeli authorities, they have not been granted Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return, which guarantees citizenship to persons who are regarded as Jews under rabbinic law. However, some members of this group are allowed to work and own businesses in various cities around the country and perform in a popular musical group at Israeli festivals. As a whole, members of this group have very little contact with either Israelis, Arabs, or Ethiopians—though they still have followers in the United States.

The Nubian Islamic Hebrew Mission, also known as the Ansaaru Allah Community, traces its origin to Mohammed Ahmed Ibn Adulla (1845–1885), the leader of a revolt against British occupation of the Sudan in the 1880s. Mohammed Ahmed was hailed by his followers as the Mahdi, the predicted Khaliyfah (successor) to the Prophet Mohammed. In 1993 the group was lead by As Sayyid Al Imaan Isa Al Haadi Al Hadhi, the alleged greatgrandson of the founder. The group organized in the United States in the late 1960s. They believe that they are both Hebrew and Muslim because both nationalities trace their lineage to Abraham, who they believe was a black man. They profess to observe all the laws and holidays of the Torah and the Koran—though Arabic and Islamic beliefs seem to be more prominent. The group's emblem is the Star of David and the inverted crescent. Their headquarters is in Brooklyn, New York, and they have followers in many cities throughout the United States. Members of this group do not recognize Orthodox Muslims as true followers of Islam, nor do they recognize white Jews as Hebrews. They repudiate the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Wallace D. Mohammed as spreading a false Islam to black people. They teach that Abraham is the father of their nation, Jesus was the Messiah, and Mohammed was the last prophet. Members of this group wear white robes, and many are vendors on the streets of New York, where they sell incense, idols, and books, and recruit new members.

The Israeli School of Universal Practical Knowledge was founded in Harlem during the 1960s and claims to have branches throughout the United States. Two of their leaders are Ta-Har, who describes himself as a high priest, and Peter Sherrod, who runs the school. Like most of the other Black Jewish groups, they believe that black people are the only true Hebrew Israelites. White people are generally thought to be evil according to the teachings of this group. They are a paramilitary organization, and their mostly male followers dress in flamboyant garb that is either African in design or altered military fatigues. Their dress is often adorned with big belt buckles and emblems of different kinds, and they often wear turbans and combat boots. They also carry large staffs or wear swords or daggers. They propagate their message from street corners in New York and by means of a public-access cable TV program called "It's Time to Wake Up," which began in the early 1990s. They teach that the Twelve Tribes of Israel correspond to "Negroes (African Americans), West Indians, Haitians, Dominicans, Panamanians, Puerto Ricans, Cubans, North American Indians, Seminole Indians, Brazilians, Argentineans, and Mexicans." They believe that the scriptures predict a violent confrontation between black and white people in which black people will be victorious, and the ancient nation of Israel will be restored.

Rastafarians are sometimes considered a sect of Hebrew Israelites because they believe that Haile Selassie was the messiah and a descendant of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. They place particular emphasis on the Old Testament laws concerning the Nazzerites, who were not allowed to cut their hair. This practice has developed into the wearing of dreadlocks that have been popularized by reggae musicians since the 1970s. There are also references to the Lion of Judah and the Star of David in their music.

There are a number of other small religious groups not discussed here that have more in common with Pentecostal "holiness" churches or purely political organizations, which make use of some Jewish elements in their worship. However, with many of these other groups, Judaism or Hebraisms are a minor part of their doctrine and ritual.

See also Pan-Africanism; Rastafarianism; Religion