Dwight D. Eisenhower

Born October 14, 1890
Denison, Texas
Died March 28, 1969
Washington, D.C .

U.S. Army general and 34th
president of the United States

Unlike two other famous American military leaders of World War II, General Douglas MacArthur and General George Patton (see entries), Dwight D. Eisenhower was an even-tempered, universally liked figure with a talent for getting people to work together. His management ability was really put to the test when, as commander of all Allied forces in Europe, he led an alliance of men from all the different branches of military service and from many different countries to victory over the German army. At the beginning of the war, Eisenhower was only a lieutenant colonel, but by the time it was over he had risen to the rank of five-star general. He overcame his lack of battle experience and with his brilliant strategies and his calm, likable personality won the trust and loyalty both of Allied political and military leaders as well as the men he led. After the war, the American people demonstrated their regard for Eisenhower by electing him president.

A poor but proud family

Eisenhower was the third of six sons born to David Jacob and Ida Stover Eisenhower, who began their married life running a small grocery store in Hope, Kansas. When the store went bankrupt, David went to Denison, Texas, to find work, and his family eventually joined him there. Dwight was born in Denison, but less than a year later his father moved the family back to Kansas because he had been offered a job at a creamery in Abilene.

The Eisenhower family was quite poor—David never earned more than $100 a month—and the boys sometimes had to defend themselves against taunting and ridicule from other children. They were taught to work hard, to be independent and self-reliant. David and Ida were members of a fundamentalist Christian group called the River Brethren, and religious faith was also an important element in the Eisenhower household.

In grade school and high school Dwight was a fairly good student, but his real love was sports. It was at this time that his classmates gave him the nickname "Ike," which would stick with him throughout the rest of his life. After he graduated from high school, Dwight made an agreement with his older brother Edgar that he would work for a year while Edgar, who wanted to become a lawyer, attended college. The next year, Edgar would work while Dwight went to college. So Dwight took a job in the Abilene creamery.

Attending West Point

Then one of Dwight's friends encouraged him to take the entrance examinations for the U.S. Naval Academy and the army's Military Academy at West Point, New York. If he passed, Dwight would receive a free college education. The fact that his very religious parents were opposed to war made this a difficult decision, but he chose to take the exams.

Eisenhower passed both exams, but learned that he was already too old to apply to the Naval Academy. Even though the navy had been his first choice, Eisenhower entered West Point in 1911. Stern discipline had been part of his family life and this helped him adjust quickly to the school's rigorous routines.

At West Point, Eisenhower immediately began to pursue his main interest—sports. He played halfback on the school's football team, but an injury during his sophomore year ruined what had been a promising athletic career. Disappointed, Eisenhower lost interest in school and began to spend much of his time earning demerits (negative disciplinary marks) by smoking and playing cards. He graduated in 1915, ranking 61st in a class of 164 students.

A steadily advancing career

Eisenhower was assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. At a party, he met Mamie Geneva Doud, the daughter of a wealthy Denver businessman who had brought his family to Texas for the winter. The couple fell in love and were married in July 1916 in Denver. They had two sons, Doud Dwight (who died in infancy) and John Sheldon Doud, who would become a career army officer.

In 1917, as the United States was getting ready to enter World War I, Eisenhower was promoted to captain. He wanted to join the fighting in France, but instead he was assigned to command a tank training center in Camp Colt, Pennsylvania. Despite his frustration at being stateside during the war, Eisenhower earned a Distinguished Service Medal for his performance.

Eisenhower became a major in 1920, and in 1921 he graduated from the Army Tank School at Fort Mead, Maryland. In 1922 came a turning point in his career: he was transferred to the Panama Canal Zone (now the country of Panama) to serve as executive officer to the 20th Infantry Brigade. There he met General Fox Conner, who took a great interest in this bright, capable young officer. Conner instructed Eisenhower in military history and helped him sharpen his administrative and tactical skills.

Important advice from a general

Conner told Eisenhower that in the next war—which he felt was inevitable and which he predicted would be fought by a coalition (a temporary union for a common purpose) of nations rather than one nation against another—a colonel named George C. Marshall would lead the American forces. He encouraged Eisenhower to try for an assignment with Marshall. Conner also helped Eisenhower get into the Army Command and General Staff School in Leavenworth, Kansas. This time, Eisenhower was serious about his studies and career, and he graduated first in a class of 275.

Building a good reputation

From 1927 to 1933, Eisenhower built a reputation as a resourceful, energetic staff officer. In 1933, while he was working in the office of the assistant secretary of war, Eisenhower was assigned to serve under General Douglas MacArthur, a flamboyant, opinionated figure who appreciated Eisenhower's even temper and considerable administrative skills. When MacArthur was sent to the Philippines to serve as a military advisor to that country's army, Eisenhower accompanied him; MacArthur's flamboyant style led Eisenhower to say later that he spent those years studying "dramatics" under MacArthur.

Four years later, Eisenhower returned to the United States and, now a lieutenant colonel, was made chief of staff for General Walter Krueger, commander of the Third Army at Fort Sam Houston. Just before the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor in late 1941, the Third Army took part in the biggest war games (a way of practicing warfare in order to prepare officers and troops for the real thing) the army had ever held. The brilliant strategies Eisenhower devised for this operation drew admiration from his superiors, and he was promoted to brigadier general.

A rapid rise to the top

The day after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) the United States declared war on Japan. Within a week, Germany and Italy (who were aligned with Japan in a coalition called the Axis) declared war on the United States. General Marshall—now the army's chief of staff—called Eisenhower to his office and asked for his advice on what action the United States should take in Asia. Eisenhower's answer impressed Marshall, and he assigned Eisenhower to the War Plans Division.

During the first months of the war, Eisenhower's strategic talent, his skill in managing people, and his tendency to both share the credit for achievements and shoulder the blame for mistakes made him an valuable member of the team directing the U.S. military effort. His rapid rise through the ranks continued. In March 1942, he was promoted to major general, and in June he was sent to London to take command of the U.S. forces in Europe. Meanwhile, General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz were in charge of the Pacific theater (area of action).

Planning Allied strategy

Eisenhower's first task was to meet with the heads of all the British and American military services to determine a course of action. They decided that the United States would invade Axis-occupied North Africa, with Eisenhower in charge of all the ground, sea, and air forces. Called "Operation Torch," this successful campaign took place in November 1942. It was followed by the Allies' victorious invasions of Sicily and Italy in July and September of 1943.

Eisenhower was named the commander of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe (SHAEF), which meant that he was now in charge of all Allied forces in Europe. Eisenhower returned to London in December to plan for the Allied invasion of Normandy on the northern coast of France. Nicknamed Operation Overlord, and D-Day, this campaign would have a huge impact on the course of World War II. Describing Eisenhower's role in Operation Overlord, Stephen A. Ambrose wrote that it "bore his stamp. He was the central figure in the preparation, the planning, the training, the deception, the organization, and the execution of the greatest invasion in history."

The Normandy invasion or D-Day

The invasion was to be carried out by 156,000 troops who would cross the English Channel on boats and land on the beaches of Normandy. The troops would be supported by 6,000 ships, thousands of airplanes, and a staff of 16,312 officers and enlisted men (higher-ranking soldiers who are not officers). The Allies planned to push the Germans back to their own country while the Russians pushed from the other direction—through Eastern Europe and toward Germany. Just in case the mission didn't succeed, Eisenhower prepared a press release in which he took full blame for the failure.

Operation Overlord was originally scheduled to begin on June 4, 1944, but a storm held up the invasion until June 6, when Eisenhower, heeding the advice of his trusted weather forecaster, finally gave the order. On that day, the weather did clear, allowing the men to land. Eisenhower made regular visits to the battlefields; once, in fact, he even drove off at the wheel of a jeep and strayed behind enemy lines.

The Allies spent the next few months advancing through France, and they liberated Paris in August. In December, the Germans made one last stand in the Ardennes region on the border of France and Belgium. This was called the Battle of the Bulge because the Germans' success in pushing the Allies back in that region caused a "bulge" in the front line. Although the German attack took the Allies by surprise, they won the battle. Forced back into Germany and fatally weakened, the Germans surrendered on May 8, 1945.

Postwar activities

Eisenhower spent another six months in Europe as head of the occupation forces, which were Allied troops who kept order and provided assistance as the various European countries made their transitions to peacetime. Then he returned to Washington to replace General Marshall as army chief of staff. Eisenhower had become so popular with the American public that in the years immediately following the end of the war, both the Democratic and Republican parties urged him to run for president. He told them he wasn't interested.

In 1949, Eisenhower became the president of New York's Columbia University, but he left this job the next year to accept command of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which had just been formed to help protect Europe from the threat of Soviet aggression.

The 34th president of the United States

Meanwhile, as the 1952 election neared, the two major political parties continued their attempts to get Eisenhower to run for president. He decided he would run—as a Republican. Backed by moderate supporters, Eisenhower beat the much more conservative Senator Robert A. Taft for the Republican nomination. He also won the national race against Illinois Democratic governor, Adlai Stevenson; in fact, Eisenhower earned the largest number of popular votes to that time.

Eisenhower brought to his office a talent for administrative efficiency and a background in foreign relations, but not much experience with domestic issues. As president he was a consensus (agreement) seeker who tended to avoid controversy if he could.

One goal of Eisenhower's first term was to end the conflict in Korea which had started in 1950. The Korean War (1950-53) involved the Communists who occupied the northern part of the country and U.S.-backed South Korea. In July 1953, Eisenhower helped to negotiate a cease-fire and truce, stating that "There is no glory in battle worth the blood it costs."

Other major events of Eisenhower's first term included the 1954 Supreme Court decision to declare segregation (the separation and unequal treatment of black and white people) in public schools unconstitutional, and the campaign of Senator Joe McCarthy to expose and remove suspected Communists from the federal government, military, and other realms of American life. Eisenhower remained quiet on both these issues.

A second term as president

In September 1955, Eisenhower had a heart attack while vacationing, and his supporters feared he would be unable to run for president again. However, he had recovered by election time, and his continuing popularity led to a victory over Adlai Stevenson. His political party was not as successful, though, and the Democrats gained control of Congress.

Eisenhower's second term as president was not quite as smooth as his first. Despite his good relationship with both Republican and Democratic congressional leaders, he faced opposition on some of his legislative measures from both parties. And he was forced to take action on the Supreme Court's segregation decision when a mob of angry white southerners blocked the integration of a high school in Little Rock, Arkansas. Eisenhower sent military units to enforce the court-ordered integration.

In addition, the progress Eisenhower had made in easing the tension between the United States and the Soviet Union was shattered when Russian premier Nikita Khrushchev refused to take part in a planned summit meeting with Eisenhower. Khrushchev was angered after an American U-2 spy plane that had been taking photographs of military sites in Russia was shot down. Critics faulted Eisenhower for allowing such an espionage (spy) operation to jeopardize peace between the two countries.

A relaxing retirement

In 1960, after Eisenhower's two terms as president were complete, John F. Kennedy, a Democrat who had been a senator from Massachusetts, was elected to the office. Eisenhower retired and divided his time between his farm at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, and a home in Palm Springs, California. He continued to speak occasionally on public issues, and he worked on his memoirs. His favorite retirement activities, though, were playing golf and bridge.

Healthy and active for the first few years of his retirement, Eisenhower suffered serious heart attacks in 1965 and 1968. In December 1968 a Gallup poll showed that he still led the list of the ten most-admired Americans. He died at Walter Reed Army Hospital in Washington, D.C., on March 28, 1969, and was buried in Abilene, Kansas, on the grounds of the presidential library he had established there a few years earlier.

Where to Learn More

Books

Ambrose, Stephen. The Supreme Commander: The War Years of General Dwight D. Eisenhower New York: Doubleday, 1970.

Burk, Robert. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Hero and Politician. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986.

Darby, Jean. A Man Called Ike. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications,1989.

Jacobs, William Jay. Dwight David Eisenhower: Soldier and Statesman. New York: Franklin Watts, 1995.

Sandberg, Peter Lars. Dwight D. Eisenhower. New York: Chelsea House,1986.

Van Steenwyk, Elizabeth. Dwight David Eisenhower, President. New York:Walker, 1987.

Periodicals

"The Father Figure: Dwight Eisenhower." Special Report: The Strategists of War. U.S. News and World Report (March 16, 1998): 59.

Web sites

Ambrose, Stephen and George H. Mayer. "Dwight D. Eisenhower." [Online]Available http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_eisenhower.html (April 21, 1999).

Dwight D. Eisenhower commanded the three million soldiers, airmen, and sailors of the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II—the largest such force ever led by one person.