Oriya

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Oriya

PRONUNCIATION: aw-REE-(y)uh
LOCATION: India (Orissa state)
POPULATION: 31 million
LANGUAGE: Oriya
RELIGION: Hinduism
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: Hindus; People of India

INTRODUCTION

The Oriya are the dominant ethnic group in India's eastern state of Orissa. They speak the Oriya language and share historical and cultural traditions that date to the 6th century bc, if not earlier. The Oriya are identified with the Odra (or Udra), a people mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts and the Mahabharata epic. The lands to the north of the Mahanadi River, which flows into the Bay of Bengal, were known as Odradesha, or the "country of the Odra."

The hilly nature of Orissa allowed the existence of numerous small kingdoms in the region. From the 4th century bc on, however, important regional states, such as Kalinga, extended their control over much of the area. During the 4th and 5th centuries ad, a foreign people (possibly Greeks) rose to power in the region, to be followed by a series of local dynasties. The end of the 11th century saw the rise of the Eastern Gangas, whose rule ushered in a golden era in Orissa's history. Th is dynasty was able to resist the spread of Muslim power into eastern India. The region remained a stronghold of Hinduism until it was conquered by the Muslim rulers of Bengal in 1568. Orissa subsequently became part of the Mughal Empire, but with the decline of Mughal power, its western areas fell to the Marathas. The British acquired the coastal regions in 1757 and the Maratha-held lands in 1803. Under the British, the region consisted of both directly administered territory and independent princely states that accepted British political rule. Orissa assumed its present form in 1947 when India gained its independence from Britain.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Oriya make up some 75% of Orissa's population, the remaining people belonging to the numerous tribes that live in the state. The 2001 census reported Orissa's population as 36.7 million. Based on projected growth rates and including the small numbers of Oriya who live in adjacent areas of neighboring states, the current number of Oriya is estimated at 31 million people.

The traditional home of the Oriya and the historical core of Orissa State is the alluvial delta of the Mahanadi River and the adjacent coastal lowlands that run along the shores of the Bay of Bengal. Inland from the coastal plains lie the Garjat Hills and the Eastern Ghats, the hills that form the edge of India's Deccan Plateau. Elevations in these hills vary from around 900 m (3,000 ft) in the north to almost 1,525 m (5,000 ft) in the south. To the west of this line of hills are the interior plateaus of western Orissa. The hills and plateaus of Orissa are among the most heavily forested regions left in India. The Mahanadi River flows in a southeasterly direction across the middle of the state. The open basin of the middle Mahanadi Valley forms the only area of extensive lowland in the interior. Climate is monsoonal, with rainfall averaging around 150 cm (60 in) over the region. The rainy season (July-October) is followed by cool winters, with mean temperatures around 20°C (68°F). In mid-February, the thermometer begins to climb as the hot, humid summer weather approaches. In June, average temperatures approach 30°c (85°F).

The location of Orissa on the Bay of Bengal makes it vulnerable to the deadly cyclones that periodically sweep up from the south from May to November. In October 1999, for instance, what came to be known as the Orissa Cyclone hit Orissa with winds peaking at 250 kmh (155mph), causing the deaths of over 10,000 people and affecting another 12 million. Th ousands of cattle were killed and over a million animals were lost. Damage in the path of the cyclone amounted to about $2.5 million, and 7 million people were left homeless. Relief agencies immediately sent assistance, and operations extended well into 2000. Unfortunately, many people died of starvation and diseases after the storm because rescue workers could not reach everyone in time.

LANGUAGE

Oriya is an Indo-Aryan language closely related to Bengali, Assamese, and other languages of eastern India. It shows less Muslim or British influence than do other Indo-Aryan languages because the region where it is spoken was one of the last to be conquered by these foreign powers. The language is one of the 23 languages spoken in India that are recognized as official languages and appears in the list of these languages printed on Indian rupee notes. Although written Oriya does not vary, the spoken form differs over the region. Standard Oriya is spoken in the Cuttack and Puri districts of Orissa.

There is a long literary tradition in Oriya, which is written in its own script. It dates back to the 14th century ad, and the early works consist of accounts of the Natha-cult, which replaced the Siddha-cult around this time. The literary tradition in Oriya is almost continuous from this time, consisting largely of songs and poetry, most of which is religious in nature. A major change in Oriya literature occurred towards the end of the 19th century, coinciding with the advent of the British administration and Western education. During the early 20th century, freedom fighters, such as Gopabandhu Das, came to the fore. In the immediate post-Independence era, writers, such as Chandrasekhar Rath, Shantanu Acharya, Mohapatra Nilamani Sahoo, and Gopinath Mohanty, became known for their fiction and short stories. In the 1970s, a reaction to the earlier fiction writers saw the emergence of literary figures, such as Jagadish Mohanty, but the latter part of the 20th century saw the appearance of feminist writers (e. g. Sarojini Sahoo) and new authors of Oriya fiction and drama.

FOLKLORE

Puri, a town located on the coast at the southern end of the Mahanadi Delta, is the site of a shrine dedicated to Krishna in his form of Jagannath (jagan-natha, "lord of the universe"). According to Puranic legend, the god Krishna was mistaken for a deer in the forest and killed by a hunter. His body was left to rot under a tree. It was found by a pious person, who cremated it and placed the ashes in a box. The local king was directed by Vishnu to make an image from these sacred relics. The king approached the divine artisan Vishvakarman, who agreed to do the work, provided he was left undisturbed until its completion. The king became impatient after 15 days of waiting and went to see how the work was progressing. The divine artisan became enraged and left the image incomplete, a mere stump without arms or legs. The god Brahma gave the image its eyes and a soul and acted as chief priest at its consecration. The king sacrificed 100 horses in honor of the occasion. The image at the temple in Puri, the most important Jagannath shrine in the country, perpetuates this tradition by representing the deity as a crudely carved block of wood.

RELIGION

The Oriya are overwhelmingly Hindu. They have the caste structure typical of Hindu society, with Brahmans performing their traditional role in ritual and religion. They accept the authority of the Vedas and the other sacred Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. The Oriya worship Shiva, the Mother Goddess, the Sun God, and many other Hindu deities. The most important sect, however, is the Vaishnava sect that reveres Krishna in his form as Jagannath.

In addition to the classical forms of Hinduism practiced by the Oriya, there is a level of popular belief embracing local deities and spirits that influence everyday life and activities. These spirits have to be appeased or otherwise dealt with through the services of shamans (kalisi), who identify and mediate with disease-causing spirits. Magicians (guni) are skilled in witchcraft and sorcery.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

As Hindus, the Oriya observe the usual pan-Indian festivals celebrated by their co-religionists across the country, as well as some that are regional in character. However, there is one festival celebrated in Orissa that is of national importance and attracts pilgrims from all over the country. This is the Chariot Procession (Ratha Yatra) of Jagannath held at Puri in Orissa every year in June or July. The images of Jagannath and two lesser deities are taken from the Jagannath temple to a country house some 3 km (2 mi) away. The images are placed in cars or chariots and pulled by pilgrims. Jagannath's car is roughly 14 m (45 ft) high, with wheels over 2 m (7 ft) in diameter. The other images travel in smaller chariots. The English word "juggernaut" comes from "Jagannath" and refers to the god's massive chariot that crushes all before it.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Certain superstitions are observed by pregnant women in rural areas. For example, they are not allowed to go out in the dark in case they become frightened and have a miscarriage. Most babies are born at home. Village women give birth squatting, with a piece of cloth tied tightly around the abdomen, and gripping a wooden pole during the labor pains. Male babies are greeted with special joy. The entire family is ritually unclean until the seventh day, when rites of purification are observed. The name-giving ceremony is held on the twenty-first day. Villagers are invited to a feast, where the family Brahman performs the necessary pujas. Children are the center of family life. They are spoiled and fussed over, until such time as they begin to share in the family household tasks. Girls are usually segregated for a period of seven days at the time of their first menstruation. In some communities, they rub turmeric paste on their bodies and bathe, before resuming their domestic and social activities.

The dead are cremated, although children and unmarried persons are usually buried. The corpse is anointed with turmeric, washed, and wrapped in a shroud. It is carried to the cremation ground by relatives and placed on the funeral pyre with the head toward the north. Some groups place women facing up and men facing down. Funeral rituals follow Hindu customs, with ceremonies being performed on the seventh, ninth, and eleventh days after death. A Brahman priest is engaged to perform these rites. Near blood-relatives shave their heads and don new clothes, and on the eleventh day a feast is held for caste members and Brahmans.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

As is common in India, when people meet a stranger, the first question they always ask is, "What caste do you belong to?" This is the usual practice, and no one feels embarrassed or offended at the question. Caste plays an important role in interpersonal relations, particularly in rural areas, and determines the nature of social contacts between people.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The Oriya are a rural people, with only 14.97% living in areas classified as urban (2001 Census of India). Villages are typically linear in form, with houses built along either side of a single street. There is often a tributary hamlet near the village, where members of the Untouchable or service castes live. The Oriya house is rectangular in shape and has mud walls and a gabled roof thatched with straw. Affluent families may have a double roof (providing insulation and some protection against fire), a small guest house, and a fence enclosing the compound. Rooms serve as cattle shed, grain store, bedroom, and kitchen. In traditional houses, the northeast corner of the kitchen is reserved for family worship. Furnishings include wooden beds, tables, and chairs. Living rooms may be decorated with pictures of gods and goddesses, important political leaders, and even film stars.

FAMILY LIFE

The Oriya follow the normal North Indian traditions of marrying within one's caste or subcaste and outside one's clan. The preference is to marry outside the village or immediate area. An Oriya proverb states: "Marital relatives from distant places are beautiful, as distant hills are enchanting." Marriages are arranged, and although child marriage was common in the past, the age of marriage is increasing. The marriage ceremony and rituals follow the Hindu form. The daughter-in-law takes up residence with her husband's family, where she assumes various responsibilities in the household. Her status, of course, is considerably enhanced when she gives birth to a son. Divorce is uncommon, although legal under Indian law. In urban areas, there is a trend away from the extended family toward the nuclear family structure.

CLOTHING

The usual dress for men is the dhoti (loincloth) and chaddar, a shawl that is draped over the shoulder. Sometimes a kurta, or shirt, is worn as an upper garment. Younger men, especially in the towns, favor Western-style clothes. Women wear the sari and choli (bodice). Orissa is known for its tie-dyed saris, and these are gaining in popularity across the country. Despite Orissa being known for its silver filigree ornaments, these are not popular among village women but tend to be favored, rather, by urban middle-class women. Village women display the usual array of ornaments and jewelry. Women of lower castes sometimes sport tattoos as decoration.

FOOD

Rice is eaten by Oriya at every meal. At breakfast, cold rice, puffed rice (mudhi), or various types of rice cake (pitha) are taken with molasses or salt, and the meal is completed with tea. Thin rice pancakes are a specialty of Orissa and are frequently served to guests. A typical meal in an Oriya household consists of rice, d?l (lentils), and vegetable curry using eggplant, spinach, and seasonal vegetables, such as cauliflower, cabbages, or peas. For those who can afford it and who are not vegetarian, fish or goat meat may be served. Food is cooked in mustard oil, except for offerings to the gods, which are prepared in clarified butter (ghi). A particular favorite in villages is a rice dish called pakhala bata. Rice is boiled in bulk, and whatever is not consumed is stored in cold water. The rice ferments a little and is later served cold with fresh green chilies. This dish is popular in summer, when it is eaten with curds and green man-goes. Bananas, coconuts, and limes are the main fruits of the region. People are fond of sweets, cookies, and drinks, such as sherbets. Alcohol is avoided by caste Hindus, although the Untouchables drink toddy made from fermented dates. Hashish is made into a drink (bhang) and taken socially and at festivals.

Food has an important role in Oriya ritual. At the feast for Shiva, for example, villagers prepare a huge, steamed rice cake made in the shape of a lingam (Shiva's phallic symbol) and stuffed with cheese, molasses, and coconut. It is colored red with vermilion dye and is worshiped before being eaten. Similarly, there are over 50 types of rice cake prepared and offered to the deity at the Jagannath Temple at Puri.

EDUCATION

Education is seen by middle- and upper-class Oriya as a means to economic advancement. Education levels in Orissa State, however, are among the lowest in India. Literacy rates in 2001 were 63.08% for those seven years of age and older (about the average for India as a whole), but this figure masks considerable differences between rural-urban populations and also gender differences. Male literacy in Orissa is 75.96% where as only 50.51% of females are literate. As against State literacy rate averages, districts like Koraput had only 35.72% literate, Malkangiri 30.53%, and Nawarangpur 33.93%.

Education is free and supposedly compulsory up to age 14, but attendance at schools is very much a matter of family choice. Girls rarely proceed beyond primary school, especially among the tribal populations. As is to be expected, test results from private schools far exceed those of government schools, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are getting involved in educational projects. For instance, Mahila Vikas, an organization with experience in tribal development and one that has successfully executed other social welfare projects in the Gajapati district of Orissa aimed at ameliorating the economic and social status of women, is undertaking a project titled "Promotion of Girl Child Education of Primitive Tribals." The Gajapati District is one of the most backward areas of Orissa and is occupied by Saura tribals. Because of limited school capacity and the inability of parents to send their girl children to government schools located some distance away, an estimated 2,000 girl children in the area are school dropouts. Mahila Vikas has established a learning center for these children and transitions them into a government school. There is a great degree of community support for the project and a strong desire to remedy the situation.

There are numerous government-run colleges and five universities in Orissa. One of these, the Shri Jagannath Sanskrit University at Puri, is devoted to Sanskrit learning and culture.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Chronicles of the Jagannath Temple at Puri, written in Oriya, date from the 12th century ad. The most productive period in Oriya literature began in the 14th century. Important contributions to Oriya literature were made by medieval bhakti (devotional) poets. Modern writing in Oriya, however, suffers from comparison with Bengali achievements. Orissa is famous for its traditions of dance, music, and architecture. The classical dance of Orissa, known as Odissi, originated as a temple dance performed for the gods. The Chhau dance, performed by masked male dancers in honor of Shiva, is another feature of Oriya culture. Cuttack is a major center for dance and music. Painting of icons (patta paintings), palm leaf painting, and woodcarving are important artistic traditions in Orissa. Orissan temples, ornamented with carvings and sculptures, are built in a distinct style regarded by some as the climax of North Indian temple architecture. Several important temples are found at Bhubaneshwar, though the Sun Temple at Konar ak is considered to be the masterpiece of medieval Orissan temple architecture.

WORK

Most Oriya are involved in rice cultivation. Orissa State accounts for around 10% of India's total rice output. Agriculture in the region is still fairly traditional, depending on animal power for traction and requiring considerable inputs of labor. Cash crops include oilseeds, pulses, sugarcane, jute, and coconuts. Fishing is important in coastal areas. Many families are engaged in producing traditional handicrafts. Industrial development in the state has occurred only in the decades following independence (following 1947).

SPORTS

Children amuse themselves with typical games, e.g., ball, tag, hide-and-seek, spinning tops, and kite-flying. Traditional games for adults include cards, dice, and other games of chance. Body-building and wrestling are common sports for men and kabaddi (team wrestling) is very popular. Modern sports, such as cricket, soccer, and field hockey, are played in schools.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Although modern forms of entertainment are found in towns, the Oriya are mostly rural and draw on the rich traditions of folk entertainment associated with Oriya culture. These include folk dances and songs, puppet plays, shadow plays (where the shadows of the characters are projected onto a screen using puppets), and folk opera (jatra), as well as the activities associated with fairs and religious festivals.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Orissa is well known for its handicrafts, particularly its little carved wooden replicas of Jagannath and the other gods at the temple in Puri. Painted masks and wooden animal toys for children are also very popular. Local sculptors make soapstone copies of temple sculptures for pilgrims and tourists. Textiles include appliqué work, embroidery, tie-dyed fabrics, and various types of hand-loom cloth. The artisans of Cuttack are skilled in filigree work and the making of gold and silver filigree jewelry. Brassware and items made from bell metal (an alloy of copper and tin) are also produced by local artisans.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Some social problems that plague Orissa stem from the "super cyclone" that affected the region in 1999. Some of the survivors, especially from the Jagatpur District that was hard hit by the storm, suffered from post-traumatic distress syndrome, experiencing symptoms like restlessness and sleep disorders. The number of suicides and attempted suicides following the cyclone was quite high and, in a survey taken in the region after the storm, a staggering 11% of the respondents expressed a death wish.

Access to land is another problem in Orissa. While land reform legislation has reduced the share of agricultural land held under large holdings (more than 6 hectares) in Orissa since the 1950s, the proportion of households operating no land, whose livelihoods are based principally on agricultural labor, increased substantially following the widespread eviction of tenants from former landlord estates. Around a quarter of all households in Orissa still have no land. In spite of land reforms, formidable obstacles continue to prevent the rural poor from improving their access to land.

Orissa is one of a few states in India that has attempted legally to abolish tenancy (land-leasing), except in the case of persons of disability (the definition of which includes widows, divorcees, and other unmarried women). Land rights may pass to any cultivator who can demonstrate continuous occupation over a period of at least 12 years. However, tenancy remains widespread, and restrictions have led to concealed forms of tenancy (e.g. with oral contracts) that give tenants little or no protection in law. A ceiling on individual land holdings also applies and currently stands at 10 "standard acres" (depending on land quality). In addition to these provisions, which fall under land reforms legislation, three major acts govern land administration and respectively provide the basis for land survey and settlement, land consolidation/prevention of land fragmentation, and prevention of encroachment on government land.

Development also causes problems for rural people in Orissa. For instance, the giant Pohang Iron and Steel Company (POSCO) of South Korea's steel plant and port in Jagatsinghpur district of Orissa will displace 471 families in 11 hamlets. For the last several years, local communities have been fighting to retain the land they have been cultivating for generations but which, after Independence, has been deemed government forest land. It is doubtful that the recent Forest Rights Act will give them the ability to assert their rights over this land. The local people assert that their vibrant and self-suffi-cient local economy based on betel leaf, cashew, and paddy cultivation, pisciculture and fishing will be destroyed, rendering them homeless and jobless if the steel plant and port come up. The government and the company in question have been doggedly pursuing efforts to "clear the land of people," with the argument that the plant, port, and mines together will generate 45,000 jobs and unprecedented revenue for the state. The pressure on local communities is based on the contention that much of the occupation and cultivation in the area is illegal because it is on government land under the jurisdiction of the forest department.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act of 2006 is a key piece of forest legislation passed in India on 18 December 2006. It has also been called the "Forest Rights Act," the "Tribal Rights Act," the "Tribal Bill," and the "Tribal Land Act." The law concerns the rights of forest dwelling communities to land and other resources denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws in India and affects the 25% of Orissa's population that are tribal, though some critics argue that the law does more to harm tribals than to defend their traditional rights.

Land alienation among the tribals of the state, i.e. the sale of tribal land to non-tribal peoples, continues to be a problem, despite the existence of legislation designed to prevent this.

Orissa is one of the poorest states of India, and many of the problems faced by its people reflect this. Illiteracy and poverty in rural areas are commonplace. Much of the region lacks a safe drinking-water supply, adequate schools, roads, and electricity. The use of child labor is common, and of concern to foreign organizations funding development projects in the region. Alcoholism in rural areas is such a problem that there is a groundswell, especially among low-caste women, for the imposition of prohibition. Modern social conditions, however, can be expected to improve as Orissa modernizes in the future. Today's social problems detract nothing from the important contributions the Oriya have made to Indian culture in the past.

GENDER ISSUES

As a predominantly Hindu, rural people, the Oriya experience many of the problems associated with Hindu society. Purdah, child marriage, dowry payment and casteism were traditionally the lot of rural Oriya women and little has changed since the past. Sons are still preferred as offspring and feticide is not uncommon, as seen in the disparity of local sex ratios. Low-caste women are subject to sexual violence and rape, and the sale of poor girl children, either into prostitution or as wives in richer parts of India, is not uncommon.

Oriya women may appear, as in other parts of South Asia, to enjoy certain land rights in law, but legal protections rarely translate into effective control over land in practice, owing to embedded, gender-biased social norms and customs. It has been suggested that women's access to and effective control over land may be enhanced through joint land titling. Th is measure is rather limited in scope, since ideally what need to be promoted are women's independent land rights. But while the principle of joint titling is readily accepted at the level of the government of India, it has yet to be realized in practice in Orissa.

The life of urban, middle- and upper-class Oriya is, naturally, quite different. However, Oriya women find poverty, illiteracy, lack of rights to inheritance, lack of access to education, poor health services and lack of economic resources as barriers to improving their status in society.