Moldovans

LOCATION: Moldova
POPULATION: 4.3 million, total population of country; 78% are ethnic Moldovans
LANGUAGE: Moldovan (Romanian); Russian
RELIGION: Russian Orthodox Church; Judaism

INTRODUCTION

The ancient Dacians are believed to be the first people to set up communities in the area now known as Moldova. The Dacians were farmers who organized themselves in family groups and settled in the land between the Dniester and Danube Rivers around 2000 bc. By the 7th century bc, the Dacians had established commercial trading posts on the coast of the Black Sea and were trading with the Greeks. In the first century bc, the Dacians were conquered by the Roman Empire, and their homeland became part of the province known as Dacia.

The Romans lost power in ad 271 because of the steady immigration of people into the region from the north and east, making the province too difficult to control. After the Romans left, a free-for-all began as Slavic invaders came from the east. The territory was divided, with the eastern part dominated by the Kievan Rus state. Several groups occupied the area over the next few centuries, including the Huns, Ostrogoths, Slavic Antes, the Bulgarian Empire, Magyars, and the Pechenegs. Mongol dominion lasted from the mid-13th to mid-14th centuries. Hungary was also moving into the area, building fortifications along the Siretul River. In 1349, Prince Bogdan established an independent Moldovan principality, which was under the power of Hungary. The new principality, originally called Bogdania, stretched from the Carpathian Mountains to the Nistru River. It was later renamed Moldova, after the Moldova River that flows through present-day Romania.

By the 15th century, there was enough unity among the people for the emergence of the Principality of Moldavia. This realm consisted of all of Bessarabia (the land between the Prut and Dniester rivers) and part of present-day Romania. It was during this time that Stephen the Great (Stefan cel Mare, 1457-1504) fought against the encroaching Ottoman Empire. Stephen the Great has become a revered national hero and a symbol of Moldovan unity and sovereignty. He built many churches and monasteries to commemorate his victories over the Turks. Most of them still exist and are visited by large numbers of people. A statue of Stephen the Great stands in the main square in Chisinau, and the main boulevard of the city bears his name.

Independence for the principality was fleeting, and Moldova fell to Ottoman control in 1512 and remained an Ottoman territory for the next three centuries. During the 1700s and 1800s, the Russian Empire battled against the Ottoman Turk Empire for control over the region. In 1711, imperial Russian troops under Peter the Great first occupied Bessarabia but eventually had to give up the territory to the Ottoman Turks. This pattern of conquest and retreat by the Russians happened three more times during the 1700s. In 1812, the Treaty of Bucharest finally forced the Turks to formally hand over Bessarabia to the Russians.

In 1856, after Russia lost the Crimean War, it had to give back Bessarabia to Moldavia, which at the time was operating as a self-governing principality within the Ottoman Empire. In 1858, a union of the Moldovan territory west of the Prut River with Walachia formed the foundation for the modern state of Romania. The de facto union of Romania was accomplished with the election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as single prince of Moldova and Walachia in January 1859. When Russia won the Turkish War in 1878, it again reclaimed the territory and held on to it until the collapse of the Russian imperial government in 1917.

When the Bolsheviks toppled the Russian imperial government in 1917, an independence movement sprang up in Bessarabia, and the National Moldavian Committee (NMC) was formed. The NMC sought to unite the region with Romania and implemented policies of land reform and official use of the Romanian language. On 9 December 1918 the Bessarabian independent government voted for a total union with Romania, which was recognized by the Treaty of Paris. The Soviet Union, however, never recognized Romania's sovereignty over Bessarabia. In 1924, the Soviet Union created the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on the left bank of the Dniester River (which was Ukrainian territory), even though its population was only 30% ethnic Romanian.

In 1939, Hitler formally accepted that Bessarabia was Soviet territory as a concession to appease the Soviet dictator Stalin. The Soviet government formally created the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic on 2 August 1940. During World War II, Romania fought against the Soviet Union to regain control over the region. By 1944, however, Soviet troops were occupying Bessarabia and all of Romania as well. Since Romania had no allies, it had to submit to Soviet demands. As a result, the Soviet Union reestablished the territorial arrangements of 1940. One of the most detrimental consequences of the Soviet regime was the forced collectivization of agriculture (the transformation of private farming into state agricultural enterprises). The refusal of many farmers to give their land and cattle to the state resulted in mass deportations to Siberia. Only the strongest managed to survive the long trip and the rough conditions of the Siberian wilderness. The ones who stayed in Moldova had to cope with a wave of severe famine in 1945–47, caused by drought, crop failure, and poor government policies.

The Soviet authorities changed the name of the Romanian language, spoken by the majority of the population, into Moldavian and its alphabet from Latin to Cyrillic (the alphabet of Russia). For approximately 45 years, Moldovans had limited access to their history and culture.

At the end of the 1980s, a new independence movement called the Popular Front of Moldavia (PFM) arose. The PFM demanded the end of Communist rule, propagated the revival of the Romanian language and culture, and wanted to again unite the republic with Romania. In 1989, the government restored the use of the Latin alphabet, abolished the official use of the Cyrillic alphabet of Russian, and officially changed the name to the Republic of Moldova. In 1991 Moldova was one of the first republics of the former Soviet Union to declare its independence.

However, the Russian-speaking minorities felt threatened by a possible unification with Romania, even though a new Moldovan law guaranteed equal rights to all ethnic minorities. As a result, two self-proclaimed, breakaway republics, theTrans-Dniester on the eastern bank of the Dniester River, and Gagauzia in the south, were formed in 1990. The situation in the Trans-Dniester erupted in violence in 1992. Eventually the Gagauz region obtained local administrative independence, while the Trans-Dniester has not yet been recognized either by the government of Moldova or by any other government or international organization.

In 2000, the Moldovan parliament passed a law making Moldova a parliamentary republic with its president elected by parliament rather than by popular vote. The people of Moldova voted the Communist Party into power in 2001, but in the years since the Communists have steadily lost ground to opposition parties. Most of the economy and agricultural land has been successfully privatized.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The tradition of the Moldovan homeland is really that of historic Bessarabia—the land between the Prut and Dniester rivers in the southwestern corner of the former Soviet Union. One of the smallest of the former Soviet republics, Moldova's entire landmass amounts to only about 33,670 sq km (13,000 sq mi), making it only slightly larger than the U.S. state of Maryland. Most of the terrain consists of hilly plains with many rivers and streams. In the west, the Prut River forms the boundary with Romania, and the Dniester River marks part of the boundary with Ukraine in the east. The Stepa Balti (Balti Plain) is in northern Moldova. The highest point is Mount Balenesti (in the west-central part of Moldova), which rises to 430 m (1,400 ft) above sea level. About 75% of Moldova is covered by a highly rich type of fertile black soil known as chernozem. Much of the rich soil lies in the lower elevations and plains of the Budzak Steppe in the south. The climate is continental, with summer temperatures averaging around 20°c (68°f) and winter temperatures averaging -4°c (25°f). Annual precipitation can fluctuate widely in the north, averaging around 40-60 cm (16-24 in). Flash-flooding often occurs in summer because of the uneven topography.

Today, about 78% of Moldova's 4.3 million inhabitants are ethnic Moldovans. Moldova has historically been home to a large number of ethnic groups, such as Russians, Ukrainians, Gagauz (a Turkish group of the Christian faith), Gypsies, Jews, Poles, and Germans. Although Moldova was the most densely populated of all the former Soviet republics, its people are traditionally rural, and there are few large cities.

LANGUAGE

The language spoken in Moldova is Romanian, though it is called Moldovan by an amendment to the Moldovan Constitution. Romanian is similar to Italian, Spanish, French, and Portuguese, as a member of the eastern division of the Romance languages of the Indo-European family. Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet during the Soviet era in order to legitimize the claim that it was a separate language from Romanian. Many archaic and obsolete words that had Russian origins were reintroduced, along with modern Russian slang and phrases. Names of persons and places were also Russianized during the Soviet years. After independence, however, the Moldovans named the official language as "Moldovan," to be written in Latin script. The Russian language is still heard in Chisinau, the capital, almost as often as Romanian.

Mihai, Ion, Mircea, Octavian, and Andrei are common boys' names, and Elena, Angela, Diana, Christina, and Liliana are common girls' names. Examples of everyday Romanian words include noroc (hello), buna ziua (good afternoon), da (yes), nu (no), poftim (please), multumesc (thank you) and la revedere (goodbye).

FOLKLORE

Moldova has an extensive history of folklore, consisting of ballads, songs, tales, jokes, riddles, dances, and games. The ancient folk ballad "Miorita" is the most prominent of all in traditional Moldovan culture. It provides an insight into the philosophical and moral values of the Moldovan people. Its rhyme reveals the melodiousness and beauty of the Romanian language.

Ileana Cosinzeana and Fat Frumos are the romantic couple present in a number of fairy tales, in which the brave Fat Frumos frees the beautiful and kind Ileana Cosinzeana from the evil dragon and they live happily ever after. Pacala and Tindala are two funny men that are the characters of hundreds of jokes.

RELIGION

Because of the influence of Romanian culture, most Moldo-vans (98%) associate with the Orthodox Church, although there are also some Uniates. Before the Soviet era, most eth-nic Romanians in Moldova belonged to the Romanian Orthodox Church, but the Russian Orthodox Church maintains jurisdiction over the area today. The Orthodox Church in Moldova today conducts liturgies in Russian, Romanian, and Turkic (Gagauz). Moldova has over 1,000 Orthodox churches and dozens of Orthodox monasteries. There are also 15 Old Believers churches (a breakaway Orthodox sect dating from the 17th century). In 1992, the Moldovan government guaranteed freedom of religion but required that all religious groups be offi-cially registered with the government. The registration process has prevented many groups from practicing freely, and the international community continues to urge the Moldovan government to reform the situation.

A pogrom (an organized persecution or massacre) against Moldovan Jews in 1903 severely reduced the urban Jewish population. Jews in Moldova were also harassed during the Soviet era. In the early 1990s, many Jewish newspapers were started, and a synagogue and Jewish high school opened in Chisinau. Also, the Chisinau State University created a Department of Jewish Studies. Current estimates place the Jewish population of Moldova at about 24,000.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The major holidays celebrated widely in Moldova are the traditional Christian holidays, such as Christmas and Easter. Christmas is celebrated in much the same way as in Western countries, although it is less commercialized. Easter is a family holiday, when women bake a special kind of bread called pasca and paint eggs red.

Each village has its own holiday once a year, called hram (church). It celebrates the establishment of the village church. By now it has lost some of its religious character, becoming a special day when each family prepares a lot of delicious food and receives guests from other villages or towns. It is the day of family reunions, fun, and friendship.

Independence Day is on August 27, when Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet Union. It is a national holiday. Sarbatoarea Limbii Noastre (National Language Day) is on August 31 and marks the day when Romanian became the state language of Moldova and changed back to the Latin alphabet. During this day, people go out to attend outside concerts and book fairs.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Christian baptism is an important rite of passage for Moldovan children and their parents. High school graduation usually marks a turning point where a young Moldovan is faced with a dilemma: either to begin work or to continue school in preparation for the university. Many also begin to consider marriage after graduation, because the completion of high school marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood. As with many other cultures, the wedding ceremony formally distinguishes the union of the couple and the joining of their families.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Social relations in urban and rural areas differ from each other. In villages, even people who do not know each other are supposed to say "Buna ziua" (Good day) to each other. In big towns and cities, only acquaintances greet each other. In formal settings, adults greet each other with "Buna ziua." Men shake hands and may also kiss the women's hands. Kissing a woman's hand, when introduced to her or when meeting on formal and semiformal occasions, is an old custom that has survived in Romania and was reintroduced to Moldova after it became independent.

Young people usually greet each other with "Salut" or "Noroc," which are the Romanian equivalents of "Hi" and "Hello." Close friends may hug and kiss each other on the cheek. Family and relatives greet each other with hugs and kisses. It is very common for parents to kiss and hug their children.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The instability following the end of the Soviet Union has significantly affected public health in Moldova. The birth rate in 2008 was 11.01 per 1,000 people (down from 16.1 in 1992), and the death rate in 2008 was 10.8 per 1,000 people (up from 9.2 in 1992). Infant mortality was 13.5 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2008. There is a lack of modern medical facilities and equipment. The leading causes of death among Moldovans are cardiovascular diseases, cancer, respiratory diseases, and accidents. Major health problems include high levels of alcohol consumption and both respiratory and digestive illnesses related to the overuse of herbicides and pesticides.

The rural culture of Moldova has always placed a high value on private housing. During the Soviet years, much of the housing stock was in fact held by private citizens. Most of the urban housing units were built in the years immediately following World War II, because the cities had been heavily bombed. When Moldova became independent in 1991, there was a severe shortage of building materials and an unreliable delivery system. Private builders accounted for only 26% of construction in urban areas, but for 95% in rural places. During 1993– 95, most state-owned housing was privatized through a system of vouchers in order to create an open housing market. Today, about 80% of housing units are privately owned.

Railroads are an important means of transportation for many Moldovans. Tracks link most of the cities within Moldova, and railroads also connect with Odessa (in Ukraine) on the Black Sea and with several Romanian cities. Highways link most of the cities and are the primary means of getting around Moldova. However, poor road maintenance and an unreliable gasoline supply often make it difficult to drive from one city to another. Most Moldovan towns have at least 1,000 inhabitants and are connected to public utilities. Chisinau offers an extensive public transport system, and the city is serviced by an international airport and train station. In Chisinau's older sections, narrow, winding streets and alleys are lined with bungalow-style houses that are more reminiscent of Bulgaria and Romania than of the former Soviet Union.

FAMILY LIFE

At the beginning of the 20th century, families with 5–9 children were common in Moldova, but that is not the case anymore. Most couples decide to have only one or two children. This can be explained by economic insecurity and by the fact that usually both parents work full-time and are not able to take care of more children. Family connections are quite strong due to longstanding traditions, but also because of financial dependence. Children depend on the support of their parents for a long time, even after they get married. Parents

count on the help of their children when they retire. Quite often grandparents dedicate themselves to babysitting.

The distribution of family duties between men and women is uneven, as women have more responsibilities. Most women work full-time, take care of their children, and do most of the shopping, cooking, laundry, and cleaning. Men usually spend most of their time at work. It is not common for men to cook or do the dishes or the laundry. In spite of all difficulties, a lot of women manage to build careers by finding a balance between their jobs and household chores.

CLOTHING

The traditional national costume has become obsolete. It can only be found in museums, as well as in some families that passed the costumes from generation to generation. The female's traditional garment consists of a white embroidered blouse, a vest embroidered and furnished with sheep fleece on the edges and a white skirt with lace on the hem, usually covered by a black embroidered overskirt.

The male costume consists of a white embroidered shirt, a vest similar to the women's, white pants, a hat decorated with peacock feathers or flowers, or a sheep fleece cap, and a wide belt. The belt can be made of leather or cloth and is usually embroidered. Both men and women wear a special kind of shoes, called opinci. They are made of pieces of leather, wrapped around the feet, with leather laces tied around the ankles.

The costumes used to be entirely handmade. Every young girl was supposed to be able to weave cloth and to do elaborate embroidery. Now, only folk music and dance groups wear national costumes, but most of them are mass-produced. Some elements of the costume, such as the handmade embroidery, periodically come into fashion.

People who live in cities and towns dress like other Eastern or Western Europeans. Jeans and tee-shirts are popular with teenagers and young people. It is common to dress up when going out to the theater, or on other formal occasions.

The everyday clothes of people who live in villages are fit for farming work. Women wear flowery cotton or flannel dresses, depending on the season, and flowered kerchiefs on their heads. Men wear shirts and pants made of durable cloth, and caps or hats.

FOOD

To most former Soviet citizens, the mention of Moldova immediately brings to mind Moldavskoe vino (Moldavian wine). Moldova's mild climate and fertile land is home to many well-known vineyards in the hills. Moldovans take great pride in their tradition of wine-making, and homemade wines are common. Sparkling wines and brandies are also produced.

The local bazaar is the distribution method used for supplying fresh fruits and vegetables. The availability of fruit and vegetables depends on the season. Most of the ingredients used for typical meals grow in Moldova. A typical breakfast may consist of a sandwich, a piece of cake, an omelet, or porridge, with tea, coffee, or milk. Lunch is an important meal of the day, consisting of a starter, soup, and a hot dish. Dinner may also be a hot meal, or may be lighter than lunch.

Traditional Moldovan dishes resemble the cuisine of the neighboring countries. Stuffed cabbage or grape leaves are considered part of the national cuisine, as well as placinte, a special pastry filled with cheese, potatoes, cherries, cabbage, etc. Coltunasi resembles ravioli. Mamaliga is a hard corn porridge, eaten with sheep cheese, farm cheese, an omelet, fish, fried meat, sour cream, or milk.

EDUCATION

During the Soviet years, ethnic Russian and Ukrainian students were given educational preference, which meant that there were few Moldovans in higher education at that time. Since independence, the Moldovan government has put in place reforms to promote higher education for all citizens. Moldova has an extensive system of primary and secondary schools, and most children go to a preschool before entering the primary grades. Literacy is nearly universal (99%). Moldova's educational system requires students to complete 10 years of basic education. After that, students may choose from either a technical school or a university preparation track.

Since independence, the Moldovan government has restored the Romanian language as the language of instruction and has added classes in Romanian literature and history to the curriculum. There are also student exchange programs with Romania, and several thousand Moldovans are now enrolled in Romanian schools. The government has also replaced old Soviet textbooks with new ones donated by the Romanian government. Ethnic minorities have the right to education in their own languages, and there are many schools with instruction in Russian and other languages. Perhaps the most unique educational institution in Moldova is the 150-year-old College of Wine Culture, which graduates about 300 students from all over Eastern Europe each year.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Moldovan music, dance, and arts share many traits with their Romanian counterparts. For example, Moldovans often play the cobza, a wooden stringed instrument similar to the lute that is common in traditional Romanian music.

The Moldovan government has a leading role in the promotion of folk culture through Joc, the national dance company, and Doina, the national folk choir. There are numerous semiprofessional and amateur dance and music groups that perform around the country as well. There are a number of professional theaters, most of which perform in Romanian.

During the Soviet era, Soviet authorities split Moldovan culture along urban and rural lines, with the urban culture influenced by ethnic Russians and the rural culture influenced by ethnic Romanians. The Soviet government encouraged the cultural arts in Moldova but sometimes distorted certain aspects to camouflage the Romanian heritage.

Moldova shares most of its literary heritage with Romania, and sometimes it is difficult to draw a dividing line between Romanian and Moldovan literature. The 19th century produced many outstanding Romanian authors, such as the poet Mihai Eminescu; the storyteller Ion Creanga; the linguist, writer, and historian Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu; the literary critic Titu Maiorescu; and many others. World-renowned Romanian writers and philosophers such as Mircea Eliade and Lucian Blaga are widely studied and respected by Moldovans.

WORK

Moldova remains largely an agricultural country, with over 40% of workers employed in agricultural jobs. Service jobs now account for almost 50% of the labor force, however, with industry employing only 12%. The official unemployment rate in 2007 was 2.1%, but 25% of the labor force was employed abroad.

In villages, children begin to help their parents around the house, or on the farm, at an early age. In the city, high school graduates start working when they are around 17 and college graduates at around 22. Many students, however, have part-time jobs.

During the Soviet regime, there was an extensive system of social welfare that provided good pensions for retirees. Because of inflation since independence, the pensions became insufficient for meeting basic needs. The Moldovan government has put programs in place to improve the situation.

A working day lasts 8–9 hours, and the work week is from Monday through Friday.

SPORTS

Soccer is popular with youths and adults, both for playing and watching as spectators.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Attending family and friends' reunions, the theater, concerts, movies, and discos are typical forms of recreation. The numerous public parks of Chisinau are wonderful recreation spots. On vacations many people travel to the Romanian or the Ukrainian seaside or mountains. Traveling abroad, however, is affordable only to a small percentage of the population.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Pottery, woodcarving, carpet-weaving, and metalwork are the most famous Moldovan handicrafts.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Moldovans face many of the same economic problems as the other former Soviet republics in the transition to a market-oriented economy. The economic transformations brought with them inflation, price deregulation, unemployment, and the weakening of the social welfare system. Wages could not keep up with the increase in prices, plunging many people of Moldova into poverty. Moldova is now one of the poorest countries in Europe, with almost one-third of the population falling beneath the poverty line in 2008. Retirees, single parents, and the unemployed have been the most vulnerable groups. Black-market activities brought fast wealth to some Moldovans, and caused a deep sense of unfairness about the present wealth distribution. The roads suffer from long-term neglect, and the telephone system is inadequate and unreliable.

There is still some tension with the two regions within the country that have declared their independence from Moldova. The Gagauz region in the south declared the "Gagauz Republic" as a separate nation in 1990. The Gagauz are Turkic-speaking Orthodox Christians who live mainly in and around the southern cities of Comrat, Ciadîr-Lunga, and Vulcanesti. The other region that broke away consists of a large number of Russian-speakers living on the eastern bank of the Nistru River who proclaimed the establishment of the "Dniester Republic" in 1990. In 1994, the Moldovan Constitution gave both groups more political freedom and granted them home-rule. This autonomy has eased tensions in the Gagauz region. However, the Trans-Dniester government is supported by the military presence of Russian troops, who agreed to withdraw but have yet to do so. Conflicts over the Trans-Dniester region continue to cause problems for Moldova.

Environmental problems in Moldova are a legacy of Soviet mismanagement. The liberal use of pesticides, herbicides, and artificial fertilizers was designed to increase crop output despite the ecological repercussions. Today, Moldova's ground-water and soil are contaminated with chemicals, some of which (such as DDT) were shown to be harmful long ago. In addition, deforestation has contributed to the ongoing soil erosion problem. Moldova has ratified a number of international agreements to address environmental problems, including the Kyoto Protocol.

As elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, crime has become more frequent in Moldova. Crimes motivated by money or drugs have become the most prominent, and it is believed that many more of these crimes go unreported. Opium poppies and cannabis (marijuana) are grown illegally in Moldova and exported to other former Soviet republics through the black market. Moldova has also become an important transfer point for illegal drugs headed for Western Europe.

GENDER ISSUES

Because of its entrenched poverty, Moldova is a major source of sexual trafficking in women and children, as well as illegal trafficking in children and men for forced labor. Lack of economic prospects makes Moldovans vulnerable to offers of jobs or marriage in other countries, only to find themselves sold into slavery of one form or another. Trafficking even occurs within Moldova's own boundaries, between the destitute rural areas and Chisinau, the capital city. In recent years, the Moldovan government has begun to put in place programs to confront and reduce illegal trafficking, but with the persistence of Moldova's economic woes, the root cause of trafficking will take some time to eradicate.

Although homosexual acts were legalized in Moldova in 1995, there are no laws specifically against discrimination or harassment of homosexuals. Homophobia remains rampant, and both verbal and physical abuse of homosexuals is not uncommon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amnesty International. "Eastern Europe: Crucible of Hate," http://action.web.ca/home/lgbt/databank.shtml?x=106123 (25 August 2008).

Fedor, Helen, ed. Belarus and Moldova: Country Studies. Lanham, MD: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1995.

Moldova.org, http://www.moldova.org/index/eng (25 August 2008).

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. "Moldova." The World Fact-book,http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/print/md.html (25 August 2008).

U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Moldova," http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5357.htm (25 August 2008).

World Health Organization. "Highlights on Health, Republic of Moldova," http://www.euro.who.int/eprise/main/who/progs/chhmda/home (25 August 2008).

—revised by Dianne de Mott