Religion in Europe: Catholicism
Religion in Europe: Catholicism
The Universal Church. Until the middle of the fifteenth century the overwhelming majority of Europeans were Christians, and the overwhelming majority of them were Catholics. There had long been calls for reform of the Church. While a few groups might have been discontented with the Church and splintered off to form their own religions, to be Christian in Europe was to be a member of the Catholic Church, adhering to the authority of the Pope in Rome as the Vicar of Christ and to his shepherds spread throughout Western Europe, the cardinals, bishops, parish priests, and nuns. The word catholic means universal; the Catholic Church was so named because of its universal membership and authority of the Pope throughout the Continent rather than the sectarian divisions that would characterize Protestantism. Religion had a tremendous influence in everyday life: the calendar, with its saints’ days, feasts, and fasts, helped dictate the rhythm of life; so, too, the icons and images of Jesus and the saints gave religion a visual presence in churches and homes alike. However, not all Catholics were content with the Church. Late-medieval critics decried the lackluster papacy and practices such as simony (the selling of spiritual goods) and other forms of abuse as well as the general spiritual poverty. This was followed by a revival of religious practice fortified by the vitality of groups such as the Spiritual Franciscans, Waldensians, and Hussianites.
The Road to Reformation. The mid fifteenth century found many Catholics dissatisfied with what they perceived to be growing corruption and declining spirituality. Many clerical leaders were interested more in their own material gain than in leading their flocks. The sale of indulgences (payments to the Church which shortened the amount of time Catholics or their deceased relatives had to spend in purgatory) and absentee priests (in which priests served more than one parish and were supported by each of those parishes but were not present) led many to call for reforms. Martin Luther and John Calvin were among the most prominent reformers; Calvin in particular drew many Catholics away from the Church. In 1534 Henry VIII, King of England, dealt another blow to the Church. After the Pope refused to grant him a divorce, Henry created the Church of England. The Church of England resembled the Catholic Church except at the head stood the English
monarch rather than the Pope. The creation of the English church opened the door for reformers. When Mary, Henry’s staunchly Catholic daughter, ascended the throne, she not only reconnected with the Church in Rome but also persecuted or forced those in opposition to the Catholic Church into exile on the Continent. England did not remain a Catholic country for long; when Mary’s half sister, Elizabeth I, came to the throne in 1558, she did so as a Protestant and helped defend reformed religion not only in her country but also throughout Europe.
The Counter-Reformation. The Catholic Church did not sit idle, watching its numbers diminish. The clergy and laity instituted a series of changes known as the Counter-Reformation. Recognizing the existence of abuses, the Church sought to purify itself. While the Catholic Church stressed that it was not acting only in response to Protestantism but rather was putting into place much-needed reform, it is clear that both the origins of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation could be found
in a shared discontent with the status quo. The Church took up the question of reform primarily at the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The council articulated doctrine on such matters as salvation and grace and defined the seven sacraments. Indeed, the Council of Trent gave the Catholic Church a doctrinal clarity lacking in Protestantism. The Church rededicated itself to the education of priests, establishing several seminaries for that purpose, and gave the Society of Jesus a special role, entrusted with promoting missionary work as well as education. Indeed, establishing missionaries in the New World and Asia was one of the major works of the Catholic Reformation (as the Counter-Reformation is also known). Ultimately the Counter-Reformation helped to revitalize spirituality and change religious culture to recognize the needs of the laity.
Sources
John Bossy, Christianity in the West, 1400–1700 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985);
Richard Mackenney, Sixteenth-Century Europe: Expansion and Conflict (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993).