BURKINA FASO

Republic of Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso Jamahiriya

CAPITAL: Ouagadougou

FLAG: The flag consists of two equal horizontal stripes of red and green divided by a narrow gold band. A five-point gold star is at the center.

ANTHEM: The national anthem begins "Contre le férule humiliante il y a déjà mille ans" ("Against the humiliating bondage of a thousand years").

MONETARY UNIT: The Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr) is a paper currency with one basic official rate based on the euro. It was originally pegged to the French franc. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 CFA francs, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 CFA francs. CFA Fr1 = $0.00193 (or $1 = CFA Fr518.65) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of the 1966 Revolution, 3 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 5 August; Assumption, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'adha', Milad an-Nabi, Easter Monday, Ascension, and Pentecost Monday.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), a landlocked country in West Africa, has an area of 274,200 sq km (105,869 sq mi), with a length of 873 km (542 mi) ene–wsw and a width of 474 km (295 mi) sse–nnw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Burkina Faso is slightly larger than the state of Colorado. Bounded on the e by Niger, on the se by Benin (formerly Dahomey), on the s by Togo, Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire, and on the w and n by Mali. Burkina Faso has a total boundary length of 3,192 km (1,983 mi).

The capital city of Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou, is located in the center of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Burkina Faso consists for the most part of a vast lateritic plateau in the West African savanna, approximately 198–305 m (650–1,000 ft) above sea level. The highest point (749 m/2,457 ft) of Téna Kourou is near the Mali border, southwest of Orodara. The land is slightly inclined toward the south and notched by valleys formed by the three principal rivers, the Black, White, and Red Voltas, and their main tributary, the Sourou. They are alternately dry or in flood and all are unnavigable. In general, the land is dry and poor.

CLIMATE

The climate is characterized by high temperatures, especially at the end of the dry season. The humidity, which increases as one moves south, ranges from a winter lows of 12–45% to a rainy season highs of 68–96%. The harmattan, a dry east wind, brings with it spells of considerable heat from March to May, when maximum temperatures range from 40°c to 48°c (104° to 119°f); from May to October, the climate is hot and wet, and from November to March, comfortable and dry. January temperatures range from 7°c to 13°c (44° to 55°f). Average annual rainfall varies from 115 cm (45 in) in the southwest to less than 25 cm (10 in) in the extreme north and northeast. The rainy season lasts from four months in the northeast to six months in the southwest, from May through October. From 1969 to 1974, Burkina Faso suffered from drought, especially in the north, which is in the semiarid Sahel zone.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The area is largely wild bush country with a mixture of grass and small trees in varying proportions. The savanna region is mainly grassland in the rainy season and semidesert during the harmattan period. Fauna, possibly the widest variety in West Africa, includes the elephant, hippopotamus, buffalo, monkey, crocodile, giraffe, various types of antelope, and a vast variety of bird and insect life. As of 2002, there were at least 147 species of mammals, 138 species of birds, and over 1,100 species of plants.

ENVIRONMENT

The major environmental problems facing Burkina Faso are recurrent drought and the advance of the northern desert into the savanna. This trend toward desertification has been increased by overgrazing of pasture, slash-and-burn agriculture, and overcutting of wood for fuel. Almost all the trees within 40 km (25 mi) of the capital have been felled. The frequency of droughts in Burkina Faso and its location in the Sahara desert contribute to the nation's water supply problems. The country has about 13 billion cu m (459 billion cu ft) of renewable water resources, but only 82% of the city population and 44% of rural dwellers have access to safe water. According to the World Health Organization, about 80% of all disease in Burkina Faso is caused by unsafe water. Pollution problems result from uncontrolled disposal of sewage and industrial wastes.

The Ministry of Environment and Tourism is the principal government agency concerned with the environment. Burkina Faso has 12 national parks and wildlife reserves totaling 2.855 million hectares (7.05 acres). In 2003, 11.5% of its total land area was protected. The country has three Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 6 types of mammals, 2 species of birds, 1 types of reptiles, and 2 species of plants. Threatened species include the African hunting dog, the chimpanzee, and the African elephant. The Sahara oryx, or white oryx, has become extinct in the wild.

POPULATION

The population of Burkina Faso in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 13,925,000, which placed it at number 64 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 46% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.5%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The projected population for the year 2025 was 22,459,000. The population density was 51 per sq km (132 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 17% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 5.18%. The capital city, Ouagadougou, had a population of 821,000 in that year. The only other large city is Bobo-Dioulasso.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Burkina Faso. The UN estimated that 6.4% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy. Counterbalancing the negative impacts of HIV/AIDS on population growth is a high fertility rate, due to low contraceptive use.

MIGRATION

Seasonal labor migration in Burkina Faso began in the colonial period as a means of obtaining money for taxes and continues as a remedy for economic deficiencies. According to some estimates, as many as two million Burkinabe live abroad at any one time, about half in Côte d'Ivoire and the rest throughout West Africa, where many are employed on coffee and cocoa plantations. In 1995, there were 49,500 refugees from Mali in Burkina Faso; repatriation of the Tuareg refugees from Mali and Niger was successfully completed by 1998. In June 1998, Burkina Faso and Benin became the first African countries to accept applicants for resettlement from other African nations. The initial goal of the resettlement program was to resettle 200 individuals over a two-year period. As of 2004, 492 people were registered as refugees. Another 518 were registered as asylum seekers. The total number of migrants in the country numbered 1,124,000 in 2000. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The principal ethnic group in Burkina Faso is the Mossi, who make up about 40% of the total population. They are mainly farmers and live in the central portions of the country. The Bobo, the secondlargest ethnic group (about one million), are mostly farmers, artisans, and metalworkers living in the southwest around Bobo-Dioulasso. Other groups include the Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Mande, and the nomadic Fulani, or Peul, who inhabit the areas near the country's northern borders. The number of nomads in the north has diminished since the Sahelian drought of the 1970s.

LANGUAGES

French is the official language of Burkina Faso. However, tribal languages belonging to the Sudanic family are spoken by 90% of the population. Moré, spoken by 55% of the population, is the most important indigenous language. The various ethnic groups speak their own languages.

RELIGIONS

About 55–60% of the population practice Islam, about 15–20% practice Roman Catholicism, and approximately 5% are Protestant. It is believed that a majority of the population also includes traditional indigenous elements within their religious practice. About 20–25% of the population practice traditional indigenous religions exclusively or principally.

Citizens in rural areas tend to practice the traditional religions. Members of the Fulani and Dioula ethnic groups are predominantly Muslim. The majority of all the nation's Muslims are Sunnis, but minority groups belong to the Shia, Tidjania, and Wahhabite sects. A large number of foreign missionary groups are active within the country, including the Assemblies of God, the Christian Missionary Alliance, the Campus Crusade for Christ, Baptists, Mennonites, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, the World Evangelical Crusade, and the Pentecostal Church of Canada. Islamic missionary groups include the World Islamic League and Ahmadia.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. Religious groups must register with the Ministry of Territorial Administration to obtain legal status. Certain Muslim and Christian holidays are observed as public holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2002, Burkina Faso had 12,506 km (7,771 mi) of roads, of which about 2,001 km (1,243 mi) were paved. Many of the secondary roads are not open all year. Vehicles in 2003 included 49,800 passenger cars, and 28,650 commercial vehicles.

The 510-km (317-mi) Mossi Railroad in Burkina Faso is part of the line that begins at Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire, and ends in Niger, some 1,145 km (710 mi) away. The line serves the towns of Banfora, Bobo-Dioulasso, Koudougou, and Ouagadougou; 25–40% of the railway traffic passes through Burkina Faso, where total rail trackage consisted of 622 km (386 mi) of 1.000-m narrow gauge track in 2004. Planning for the construction of a railroad from Ouagadougou to Tambao (353 km/219 mi) to exploit the mineral deposits in the area was begun in October 1981. Constructed by volunteers, the line reached Donsin, 33 km (21 mi) from Ouagadougou, in 1987, and the second stage to Kaya (77 km/48 mi) was completed by 1991.

There are international airports at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso and numerous smaller airfields. In 2004, the number of airports totaled 33, only 2 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Burkina Faso owns part of Air Afrique, which provides the country with international service. Air Burkina, which began in 1967, is government-run and has a monopoly on domestic service. It also flies to neighboring countries. In 2003, about 55,000 passengers were transported on domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Until the end of the 19th century, the history of Burkina Faso is the history of empire-building by the Mossi. Legend and tradition as well as some ethnographic evidence all suggest that the Mossi entered the region from the 11th to the 13th century as a warrior group from Central or East Africa and subjugated the weaker aboriginal Ninigi tribes.

They called their land Mogho ("country of the Mossi") and established five independent kingdoms—Tenkodogo, Yatenga, Gourma, Zandoma, and Ouagadougou. Each was ruled by a king, the mogho or moro naba ("ruler of the Mossi"); and Ouagadougou was the most powerful of the kingdoms.

Through the centuries, the Mossi population was augmented by groups of immigrants, such as the Hausa and the Fulani, who settled in Mossi territory but retained their ethnic identity. Contact and conflict with Islam came early. From the beginning of the 14th century, the Mossi had been engaged in recurrent wars with the neighboring empires of Mali and Songhai. They also occupied Timbuktu (now in Mali) at various times. After suffering defeat in the hands of Askia Daoud of Songhai in the 16th century, the Mossi ceased fighting with their powerful neighbors. Their warrior tradition and their internal unity continued, however.

By the 19th century, Mossi power seems to have declined. When the first known European incursions occurred late in the 19th century, internal dissension made the Mossi prey to the invaders. A French lieutenant, Voulet, was sent with an infantry column to subjugate the territory in 1896. Ouagadougou fell to Voulet in September of that year. The Mossi accepted French domination as a form of protection from their hostile neighbors.

In 1919, the French created a separate colony called Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso). But in 1932, Upper Volta's territory was divided among Niger, French Sudan (now Mali), and Côte d'Ivoire. Throughout the colonial period, the traditional political structure of the Mossi was retained; hence, the moro naba of Ouagadougou was regarded by the French as the emperor of the Mossi. When World War II broke out, the moro naba sent his two eldest sons to fight for France; more than 10,000 youths in the territory also followed suit. The restoration of Upper Volta as a territorial unit, long the aim of the traditional chiefs, became a reality in 1947. In 1958, voters in Upper Volta overwhelmingly approved the new constitution of the Fifth French Republic, and Upper Volta's territorial assembly voted to make the country an autonomous state within the French Community. By this time, the traditional chiefs had lost much of their influence, and political power was in the hands of the young, European-educated elite.

The republic achieved independent status on 5 August 1960. Maurice Yaméogo, leader of the Volta Democratic Union, became president. His government quickly took on an authoritarian cast and banned all opposition parties. In 1965, a single electoral list was offered to the people, and the opposition—joined by civil servants, trade unionists, and students—fomented riots. Yaméogo was replaced in January 1966 by Lt. Col. (later Gen.) Sangoulé Lamizana, a former army chief of staff, who suspended the 1960 constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and formed a military-civilian cabinet.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, Upper Volta suffered from severe political instability. A constitution that provided for an elected assembly was adopted in 1970, but factional struggle broke out and became so disruptive that in February 1974, President Lamizana announced that the military had again taken over the government. A new constitution was approved in 1977; under this constitution, Lamizana won election to the presidency in 1978. On 25 November 1980, however, Lamizana was deposed in a bloodless coup led by Col. Sayé Zerbo, who became president. Zerbo's government was overthrown on 7 November 1982 by yet another army coup, and Maj. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo was named president.

Under the moderate Ouédraogo regime, a military faction emerged that was suspected of having close ties to Libya. Prominent in this group was Capt. Thomas Sankara, who served as prime minister from January until May 1983, when he was purged by Ouédraogo. On 4 August 1983, Sankara seized power in what was Upper Volta's third coup in as many years. As many as 20 persons may have died in the disturbances. After the coup, Sankara, who emerged at the head of the ruling National Revolutionary Council, sought to retain Upper Volta's traditional foreign aid ties with the West while establishing warm relations with such nations as Ghana, Libya, the USSR, and Cuba.

Sankara also sought to instill his nation with a spirit of revolutionary fervor. In August 1984, on the first anniversary of his rule, he renamed the nation Burkina Faso, meaning roughly "Land of Upright Men." He led a campaign against corruption and tax evasion; and he trimmed government spending by cutting the salaries of civil servants, an action that earned him the enmity of the nation's small but influential labor unions. A substantial number of politicians, soldiers, government officials, and labor leaders were jailed, and seven men were executed in 1984 for allegedly plotting to overthrow the government.

In December 1985, Burkina Faso took up arms against Mali. At issue was a strip of land 20-by 160-km (12-by 100-mi) that had triggered clashes first in 1974, and again in 1975. On 22 December 1986, the International Court of Justice ruled in favor of dividing the territory into roughly equal parts, a decision both nations accepted.

On 15 October 1987, faced by opposition among the trade unions and civil servants, the government was overthrown by an army unit. The putsch was led by Capt. Blaise Compaoré, the president's chief adviser who is also said to have been his inseparable companion. Sankara and 12 aides (including two of the coup plotters) were immediately shot, and Compaoré assumed the presidency. Executions of highly placed military men followed a coup attempt on 18 September 1989.

As the 1990s dawned, the authorities sought to legitimize their position at the ballot box. They championed the drafting of a new constitution that called for multiparty elections for president and a national legislature. In March of 1991, the ruling party abandoned its Marxist ideology and embraced free enterprise.

Elections were held for president in December 1991; a parliamentary election followed in 24 May 1992. Results from both were disputed, and they led to no changes in the government. Compaoré ran unopposed for president and his party, the Popular Democratic Organization-Worker's Movement (ODP-MT), carried the legislative elections. Only three opposition parties contested seats nationwide; 35 parties boycotted the poll and only 35% of eligible voters voted. The ODP-MT won 78 of 107 seats, with 9 other parties splitting the remainder of the vote. The government convened on 15 June and Youssouf Ouédraogo was named prime minister. The introduction of multiparty competition was a major reform, but the lack of probity in the electoral process prompted critics to label the government and its reforms a "shamocracy."

Under Compaoré, Burkina Faso has conducted an active foreign policy in West Africa. It sent troops to Liberia and harbors dissidents from Gambia. This has alienated Compaoré from his fellow West African leaders and from western governments, including the United States, which recalled its ambassador in 1992. Burkina Faso continued its support for Liberian insurgent Charles Taylor and his NPFL despite a West-Africa-wide deployment of forces—ECOMOG—in Liberia to help resolve the lingering and bloody civil war there. Burkina Faso had refused to contribute forces to ECOMOG, despite international pressure, until 1995, when the Compaoré regime announced it was satisfied with the cease-fire accord signed that year in Nigeria.

Human rights violations have been commonplace under the Compaoré regime. The government has suppressed a vocal independent press, and the security forces have used excessive force against demonstrations and government critics. In December 1998, the sudden and suspicious death of Norbert Zongo, an investigative reporter, unleashed a backlash of demands for reforms. Zongo had been investigating allegations that the president's brother, Francois Compaoré had taken part in the murder of his own chauffeur, David Ouédraogo. Zongo's charred body and those of three companions were found in a bullet-riddled car near the capital.

In March 1999, thousands of students, school children, and other protesters had marked Zongo's death with a peaceful march to his gravesite. Since then, high school and university student groups, and a group known as Le Collectif comprising human rights groups, NGOs, labor unions, and political parties, have organized numerous stay-at-home's, and strikes throughout the country. Besides a full and independent investigation into Zongo's death, they demanded reforms to the judiciary, guarantees for human rights, revisions to the constitution, and to the electoral code. In late 1999, an independent inquiry concluded that Zongo had been a victim of political assassination. In April 2000, the Committee for the Protection of Journalists (CPJ) condemned the closure of a private radio that had aired a communiqué from a coalition of opposition and human rights groups, calling for a rally to protest the government's handling of the Zongo case.

Progress toward the rule of law was made when the National Reconciliation Commission (NRC), established by Compaoré in November 1998, asked the government in February 2000 to arrange special trials of people implicated in economic crimes and political killings. Though estimates placed the number of political killings since 1989 at 100 or more, 60 of these cases and compensation for widows and orphans were to be handled by these special units located in each of the districts. In 2001, Compaoré established a fund of $7.75 million to compensate families of victims of political violence and rights abuses.

In 2001 and 2002 the country experienced outbreaks of meningitis that killed more than 2,500 in two consecutive seasons. Since September 2002, more than 150,000 Burkinabe refugees have returned home owing to the civil conflict in Côte d'Ivoire. The May 2002 parliamentary elections marked the first time in Burkina's history that three consecutive legislative elections were held without a military coup. It was also the first time that the single ballot was used in an election. Some 30 parties participated in the elections, but seats were shared between a few. The major winners were President Compaoré's Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP) with 57 seats and The African Democratic Rally-Alliance for Democracy and Federation (ADF/RDA), which took 17 seats.

GOVERNMENT

Under the constitution of 27 November 1960, Upper Volta was governed by a president, a council of ministers, and a National Assembly of 50 members. On 5 January 1966, President Lamizana suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly, announcing that he would exercise legislative and executive power by ordinance and decree. A constitution approved in 1970 provided for eventual restitution of democratic institutions, although with a formal role in the government for the military. The 1970 constitution was suspended in February 1974, when the army again assumed full power.

A democratic constitution, adopted in 1977, provided for a president and a 57-member National Assembly. This document was abolished after the coup of 25 November 1980, and the Military Committee for Reform and National Progress (Comité Militaire de Redressement pour le Progrès National—CMRPN), led by Col. Sayé Zerbo, assumed power. The military coup of 7 November 1982 led to the abolition of the CMRPN and the formation of the People's Salvation Council (Conseil du Salut du Peuple—CSP) under Maj. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo. The CSP was itself dissolved by the military coup of 4 August 1983, which established the National Revolutionary Council (Conseil National de la Révolution—CNR), a body that included radical former CSP members. Under Capt. Thomas Sankara, its chairman and the head of state, the CNR was the supreme governmental authority and was assisted by a Council of Ministers. Following the October 1987 coup, this body was renamed the Popular Front, with Capt. Blaise Compaoré as its chief.

A new constitution, establishing the fourth republic, was adopted on 2 June 1991. Among other provisions, it called for an Assembly of People's Deputies with 107 seats (now 111). The president is chief of state, chairs a council of ministers, appoints a prime minister, who with the legislature's consent, serves as head of government. In April 2000, the constitution was amended reducing the presidential term from seven to five years, enforceable as of 2005, and allowing the president to be reelected only once. However, it is not clear whether this amendment would be applied retroactively or not—and how it might affect a possible future ambition on the part of President Compaoré. The legislative branch is a unicameral National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) consisting of 111 seats. Members are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. New elections were expected in May 2007.

In April 2005, President Compaoré was re–elected for a third straight term. He won 80.3% of the vote, while Benewende Stanislas Sankara came a distant second with a mere 4.9%. The next presidential election was due in November 2010.

POLITICAL PARTIES

After the 1978 competitive presidential and legislative elections, the government recognized only the three largest parties in the National Assembly: the Voltaic Democratic Union–African Democratic Rally, the National Union for Democracy, and the Voltaic Progressive Union. The last subsequently merged with smaller groups to form the Voltaic Progressive Front.

Following the coup of 25 November 1980, all political parties were banned. To disseminate government views on a grass-roots level, the CNR, which took power in 1983, sponsored the formation of Committees for the Defense of the Revolution.

The Compaoré government legalized parties prior to holding elections on 24 May 1992. Compaoré's Popular Democratic Organization-Worker's Movement (ODP-MT) gained 78 seats. The National Convention of Progressive Patriots-Social Democratic Party (CNPP-PSD) won 12 seats and the African Democratic Assembly (ADA) won 6. Eight other parties were represented in the Assembly of People's Deputies. Abstention of 65% of the voters diminished the significance of this election.

National Assembly elections were held 11 May 1997. Again, a boycott resulted in an approximate 50% voter turnout with the CDP of President Compaoré winning 101 seats, the PDP 6 seats, the RDA 2 seats, and the ADF 2 seats.

In the municipal elections of September 2000, the CDP took 802 of 1,098 council seats based on a voter turn-out of 68.4% in a field of 25 parties. The African Democratic Rally-Alliance for Democracy and Federation (ADF/RDA) took second place with 133 seats. Third place was taken by l'Union des Démocrates Libéraux (ULD), a pro-presidential group with 49 seats. The l'Union pour la Démocratie et la Fédération (UDF), an opposition group, took fourth place with 22 seats. The Party for African Independence (PAI) took fifth place with 20 seats. A number of younger parties including the Democratic Convention for Federation (CDF) took the remaining seats. Numerous complaints of fraud were brought forward to the Constitutional Court, but they hardly affected the overall results.

The parliamentary elections of May 2002 saw the CDP retain its majority, but its control declined to 57 seats against 17 for ADF/RDA led by Hermann Yaméogo. The Party for Democracy and Progress (PDP/PS) of Joseph Ki-Zerbo won 10 seats; the CFD took 5; PAI led by Philippe Ouedraogo also took 5 while other parties won 17 seats. The next elections were scheduled for May 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

In 1986, Burkina Faso was divided into 30 provinces; the number of provinces increased to 45 following approval by the National Assembly of a new electoral code in 1997. Provinces were subdivided into 300 departments and 7,285 villages. In the 1995 municipal elections, President Compaoré's supporters won absolute majorities in 26 of 33 municipalities. Fewer than 10% of the eligible voters registered, and 25% of the registered voters abstained. The 24 September 2000 municipal elections were boycotted by a coalition of opposition parties known as the February the Fourteenth movement; as such, the ruling CDP party won in 40 of the 49 municipalities.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

At the apex of the judicial system is the Supreme Court and beneath it are courts of appeal at Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. Courts of the first instance in Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso, Ouahigouya, and Fada N'Gourma deal with cases involving civil, criminal, and commercial law, and a court at Ouagadougou specializes in common law. The courts of appeal are in the capital. Following the 1983 coup, the CNR created tribunals to try former government officials for corruption and mismanagement. These "people's tribunals" infringed to some degree on the functions of courts of the first instance. In 1993, the "people's tribunals" were abolished.

In addition to the courts described above, traditional courts at the village level apply customary law in cases involving divorce and inheritance. The legal system is based on the French civil law system and customary law. There is also a High Court of Justice to try the president and high government officials for treason or other serious crimes.

In June 1991, a new constitution was adopted which provided a number of safeguards including a right to public trial, right to access to counsel and a right to appeal. In 1995, an Office of Ombudsman "Mediateur du Faso" was created for resolving disputes between the state and its citizens. The judiciary operates independently of the executive; yet the president has considerable power as well as influence over the appointment of judges.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Burkina Faso had 10,800 active personnel in its armed forces. The Army had 6,400 personnel. The 200-member Air Force had 5 combat capable aircraft. The gendarmerie consisted of 4,200 personnel, and 45,000 men and women were on reserve in a "people's militia." The defense budget in 2005 totaled $72.7 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Burkina Faso was admitted to UN membership on 20 September 1960. It is a member of ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies. It is also a member of the WTO (1995), the African Development Bank, the West African Economic and Monetary Union, the ACP Group, ECOWAS, G-77, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the African Union. The nation is part of the Franc Zone and the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD). Together with other countries of former French West Africa, it participates in the Council of the Entente. The headquarters of the Communauté Economique de l'Afrique de l'Ouest are in Ouagadougou. Burkina Faso also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority. Burkina Faso is part of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, the nation is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Burkina Faso remains one of the poorest countries in the world. Agriculture accounts for about 35% of the GDP and employs about 90% of the labor force. Food staples—millet, sorghum, maize, and rice—are the principal crops grown for domestic consumption. Cotton is the principal export crop; its cultivation, however, is notably price sensitive. In addition, Burkina exports small amounts of shea nuts, sesame, groundnuts, sugar, cashews, and garden vegetables. The livestock sector was once substantial, but had declined by 2002.

The environmental conditions for agriculture are often precarious. Northern Burkina is at the edge of the Sahara Desert and has been subject to severe drought. Furthermore, Burkina soils are generally poor and lateritic. However, expansion of agriculture to more fertile fields in river valleys was supported by a multimillion-dollar UN project to eradicate "river blindness" (onchocerciasis) which had previously rendered these locations uninhabitable.

Burkina's mineral sector is largely undeveloped. Long underestimated, the Poura gold reserves have proven to be capable of generating nearly 10% of export earnings annually. Zinc and silver deposits at Perkoa have been judged commercially viable. The World Bank issued loans in 1996 to upgrade the mining industry.

Mineral deposits in the north of the country were hostage to the extension of the Abidjan-to-Ouagadougou rail line to Dori. Significant limestone deposits basic to cement manufacturing are located near Tambao at Tin Hrassan. Other mineral resources are manganese, vanadium-bearing magnetite, bauxite, lead, nickel, and phosphates.

In January 1994 France devalued the CFA franc, causing its value to drop in half overnight. Immediately, prices for almost all imported goods soared, including prices for food and essential drugs, like those to combat malaria. The devaluation was designed to encourage new investment, particularly in the export sectors of the economy, and discourage the use of hard currency reserves to buy products that could be grown domestically. Prior to devaluation, Burkina Faso imported most of its food and had little to export; since 1994, exports have risen. As of 2003, economic progress depended upon reducing the trade deficit, the continuation of low inflation rates, improving the infrastructure, pursuing privatization, developing mineral resources, and encouraging private investment. Foreign aid remains the chief source of finance for investment and economic development. In 1999, the World Bank agreed to implement a five-year structural adjustment program of $53 million, and in 2000, it approved an interest-free $45 million Poverty Reduction Support Credit (PRSC) for the country, to help it carry out poverty-reduction policies and programs.

The growth rate of the economy was 6.5% in 2003, up from 4.4% in 2002. By 2004, the rate was expected to fall to 4.6%, and to 3.5% by 2005. Inflation decreased from 5.0% in 2001 to subzero levels in 2004. Inflation targeting and macroeconomic policy were devolved to the West African Regional Central Bank, but the government of Burkina Faso maintains control over microeconomic policies. The prolonged crisis in neighboring Côte d'Ivoire has also hit the economy of Burkina Faso, which now is even more dependent on international aid.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Burkina Faso's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $16.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 6.4%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 39.5% of GDP, industry 19.3%, and services 41.3%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $50 million or about $4 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.2% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $451 million or about $37 per capita and accounted for approximately 10.8% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Burkina Faso totaled $3.34 billion or about $281 per capita based on a GDP of $4.2 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 3.8%. It was estimated that in 2003 about 45% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003, Burkina Faso's labor force totaled five million people. However, a large part of the country's male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for temporary employment. As of 2005, approximately 85% of workers were involved in subsistence farming. There is no data available as the the nation's unemployment rate.

Although the vast majority of the country's workforce was in the agricutural sector and were not members of a union, the majority of the remaining workforce were union members. About 60% of the country's public employees were union members, while around 50% of the workers in the private sector were unionized in 2005. However, essential workers such as police officers may not unionize. Workers may use strikes to achieve their labor goals.

The minimum age for employment is 14 years, although due to the economy and vast number of agricultural workers, child labor remains a huge problem. There was a standard workweek of 40 hours and a minimum monthly wage of $53 in 2005. However, the minimum wage does not apply to those in subsistence agriculture. There are also public safety and health laws, which also exclude subsistence agriculture. Nevertheless, a lack of resources means that these standards are seldom enforced anywhere.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture employs the vast majority of the work force and accounted for an estimated 31% of GDP in 2004. However, only an estimated 13% of the total land area is under annual or perennial crops. Government attempts to modernize the agricultural sector have met with some success, especially with cotton, whose export accounted for 51% of total exports in 2004. In 2004, about 85% of the 210,000 tons of cotton produced was exported. The resistance to improvement has been due mostly to the insufficient water supply and poor soil. Burkina Faso is not self-sufficient in food. Although total cereal production rose from 1,547,000 tons in 1990 to 3,063,000 tons in 2004, imports are needed to meet demand.

In the early 1980s, local laborers constructed a 1,144-km (711-mi) canal to bring water for irrigation from the Black Volta to the newly constructed Sourou Dam. This work was part of a plan to establish 40,000 hectares (100,000 acres) of irrigated land for smallholders and state projects. Production figures for principal subsistence crops in 2004 were sorghum, 1,481,000 tons; millet, 881,000 tons; corn, 595,000 tons; and rice, 95,000 tons. Commercial crops (with 2004 production figures) included cottonseed (315,000 tons), groundnuts (321,000 tons), cotton fiber (210,000 tons), and sesame (29,000 tons). Other important crops are cassava, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, and tobacco. Sugarcane has been introduced on a large scale and is becoming an important cash crop; 450,000 tons were produced in 2004.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

In 2004 there were an estimated 10,586,000 goats; 7,000,000 sheep; 541,000 asses; 674,000 pigs; 27,000 horses; and 24,000,000 chickens. Meat production in 2004 included 58,100 tons of beef; 28,200 tons of poultry; 27,000 tons of goat meat; 14,000 tons of mutton; and 9,700 tons of pork. In 2004, 9,500 tons of cattle hides; 7,100 tons of goatskins; and 3,400 tons of sheepskins were produced. Dairy products that year included 187,100 tons of cow's milk; 54,000 tons of goat's milk; and 1,400 tons of butter and ghee. Hens produced 18,200 tons of eggs in 2004. During 2002–04, livestock production was 6.3% higher than during 1999–2001 and almost 30% higher than during 1992–94. Further development depends on the availability of pasturage and water, as well as the import policies and tax levels of neighboring countries.

FISHING

The country has no access to the sea, and freshwater areas are limited. Fish are caught by traditional methods, and production amounted to 9,005 tons in 2003.

FORESTRY

Almost all vestiges of Burkina Faso's primitive forest have been cut down for fuel or to make way for farmland, and reforestation did not begin until 1973. About 50% of the total land is considered forest or woodland. Deforestation proceeded at the rate of 0.2% per year during 1990–2000. Roundwood removals were estimated at 7.3 million cu m (259 million cu ft) in 2003, 84% for fuel.

MINING

Mining does not play a significant role in Burkina Faso's economy. However, government revenues are dominated by gold, the third leading export commodity. Gold mining output for 2004 was 1,125 kg, and artisanal miners have become the predominant producers. The gold mine at Poura, which was estimated to contain 450,000 tons of ore at a grade of 12 grams per ton of gold, closed in 1999, reportedly because of low gold prices, after completion of an $11.6 million rehabilitation project in 1997 financed by the European Union. The mine was operated by the parastatal Société de Recherches et d'Exploitations Minères du Burkina (SOREMIB), and production was complemented by the output of tens of thousands of individual prospectors called orpaillages. An estimated 40%–60% of artisanal gold production was smuggled out of the country.

Exploitation of an estimated 15 million tons of high-grade manganese ore at Tambao awaited better commercial prospects and completion of a railway extension from Ouagadougou to Tambao. As of 2004, the mine remained closed. Bauxite deposits have been located in the regions of Kaya and Bobo-Dioulasso. Significant mineral deposits included copper at Gaoua and Wayen, graphite at Kaya, and phosphate at Kodjari. Four main deposits of limestone have also been discovered. For many years, iron has been worked at Ouahigouya and near Banfora to make farm and home implements. The Perkoa high-grade zinc ore deposit, in development, had resources of 7 million tons and planned to produce 60,000 tons per year with an estimated mine life of 15 years. Other deposits included cassiterite, cobalt, diamonds, granite, lead, marble, nickel, phosphate rock, pumice, salt, sand and gravel, uranium, and vanadium. The government adopted a new mining code in 1997 primarily to standardize all the legal measures used to regulate the sector and to amend those parts of the previous legislation that had hindered future development.

ENERGY AND POWER

All petroleum products are imported since the country has no known crude oil reserves or refining capacity as of 1 January 2003. Imports and consumption of petroleum in 2002 amounted to 8,870 barrels per day. As for natural gas, Burkina Faso is known to have no natural gas production, consumption, or reserves. Electricity accounts for all energy production. Total installed electrical capacity in 2001 was 0.121 million kW. Production rose from 42 million kWh in 1973 to 0.28 billion kWh in 2001, of which 73.6% was thermal and 26.4% hydroelectric. Consumption of electricity was 0.26 billion kWh in 2001. Construction of a 15,000 kW hydroelectric facility at Kompienga was finished in 1989. In 1999, with a grant from the government of Denmark, Burkina Faso built a new power station, completing it in just five months to meet the country's emergency energy needs. Production and distribution of electricity and water are controlled by the state-owned Société Nationale d'Électricité du Burkina (SONABEL), established in Ouagadougou in 1968.

INDUSTRY

Industry accounted for about 28% of Burkina's GDP in 2000, yet employed only 2% of the population. The principal centers for economic activity are Bobo-Dioulasso, Ouagadougou, Banfora, and Koudougou, cities on the rail line to Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. Burkinabe industry reflects an interesting diversity, but is dominated by unprofitable state-controlled corporations. Important sectors are food processing, textiles, and leather, although smallscale operations manufacture cigarettes, bricks, and light metal goods such as beds and agricultural implements. Other enterprises are a brewery and moped and bicycle assembly plants. Cotton production (cotton is Burkina Faso's main export) reached record levels in 1999, reaching 419,000 tons, marking the fifth consecutive year of strong growth in the sector. Gold is the country's third largest export.

Efforts were underway in 2003 to develop a shea butter industry in Burkina Faso: shea butter is used as a skin moisturizer and as a substitute for cocoa butter in the production of chocolate. Of 42 state enterprises selected for sale, 21 were divested by 1999. Shell, Elf Oil, Mobil Oil, and Texaco operate in Burkina Faso; the country has no hydrocarbon resources. SONABEL (Société Nationale Burkinabe d'Electricité) is the state-owned utility supplying electricity to the country. Burkina Faso has undeveloped phosphate resources and manganese deposits.

The industry's share in the economy dropped to 19.3% in 2004; agriculture accounted for 39.5% of the GDP, while services came in first with 41.3%. The bulk of the five million working people are engaged in agriculture, and a numerous male workers migrate annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Burkina Faso has a shortage of skilled scientists and technicians. Scientific and technical aid comes chiefly from France. In 1997 (the latest year for which data is available), expenditures for research and development totaled $16.951 million or 0.2% of GDP. In that year there were 17 scientists and 16 technicians per million people, actively engaged in R&D. In 1997, high technology exports totaled $2 million, or 7% of total manufactured exports. Burkina Faso has four national institutes conducting research in agriculture, medicine, and natural sciences; and two French institutes conducting research in medicine, hydrology, and geology; and an international institute (founded in 1960) to combat endemic and transmitted diseases and malnutrition and to train medical workers in eight member African states. The University of Ouagadougou (founded in 1969) has institutes of mathematics and physics, chemistry, natural science, technology, and health sciences. A 14-nation school of engineering and rural equipment (founded in 1968) is in Ouagadougou. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 37% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

As of 2000, about 90% of the population was employed in subsistence farming. The country relies heavily on imports for capital goods and food products. Importers generally are their own wholesalers and often their own retailers, dealing in everything from matches to farm equipment. There are a limited number of privately-owned factories for cotton and textiles manufacturing and food processing. Many residents migrate to surrounding countries to find work and send money back home. The main commercial centers are in Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, where French commercial practices prevail.

FOREIGN TRADE

The leading imports are machinery and food products. Refined petroleum products also account for much of the nation's imports, along with cement, clinker, and fertilizers. Cotton is Burkina Faso's largest export (57%), with gold in second place (17%), and animal products coming in third. Vegetables, leather, oil seeds, and animal hides account for about 20% of exports.

In 2004, exports reached $419 million (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $866 million (FOB). The bulk of exports went to China (32.1%), Singapore (11.5%), Ghana (4.7%), and Bangladesh (4.3%). Imports mainly came from France (29.3%), Côte d'Ivoire (16%), Togo (9.8%), and Belgium (5.0%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Burkina Faso's balance of payments is chronically negative, as receipts from exports of goods and services typically only cover 30–40% of imports. It has had to rely heavily on remittances from Burkinabe working abroad and on international credits and other forms of borrowing to help offset widening trade imbalances. These factors, together with net capital inflows, generated a slight surplus from 1986 to 1988. Declining gold exports and falling cotton prices in 1989, coupled with increased imports and declining remittances from abroad, seriously deteriorated Burkina Faso's

trade balance. By 1990, however, recovery in the gold and cotton sectors reduced the current account deficit to about 14% of GDP (from over 17% in 1989).

Burkina Faso and the IMF agreed upon a structural adjustment program in 1990 in which rigorous financial control was made a priority. Tax collections were improved and salaries stabilized to the point that budget surpluses were attained in 1989 and 1991. A value-added tax took effect in 1993. An enhanced structural adjustment program negotiated in 1993 sought growth of 3–11% annually while curbing ongoing financial imbalances. In 2003, the IMF approved a three-year $34 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement with Burkina Faso.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001 the purchasing power parity of Burkina Faso's exports was $265 million while imports totaled $580 million resulting in a trade deficit of $315 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1994 Burkina Faso had exports of goods totaling $216 million and imports totaling $344 million. The services credit totaled $56 million and debit $138 million.

Exports of goods and services reached an estimated $435 million in 2004, up from $321 million in 2003. Imports grew from $685 million in 2003, to $791 million in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, reaching -$364 million in 2003, and -$356 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, slightly decreasing from -$368 million in 2003, to -$397 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (excluding gold) grew to $528 million in 2004, covering around eight months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

In 1959, the Central Bank of West African States (Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest-BCEAO) succeeded the Currency Board of French West Africa and Togo as the bank of issue for the former French West African territories. In 1962, it was reorganized as the joint note-issue bank of Benin (then Dahomey), Côte d'Ivoire, Mauritania (which withdrew in 1973), Niger, Senegal, Togo, and Burkina Faso (then Upper Volta). BCEAO notes, known as CFA francs, are guaranteed by France without limitation. Foreign exchange receipts of Burkina Faso go into the BCEAO's exchange pool, which in turn covers its foreign exchange requirements.

Other banks are the International Bank for Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture of Burkina Faso; the National Development Bank (80% government-owned); the National Fund of Agricultural Credit of Burkina Faso (54% state-owned); the state-owned National Fund of Deposits and Investment; the International Bank of Burkina; Banque Nationale de Paris (BNP); Bank of Africa (BOA); and Ecobank Burkina.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $357.8 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $537.5 million. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6.5%.

INSURANCE

Insurance companies must have government approval and are subject to government supervision. Automobile third-party liability insurance is compulsory. Two French companies provide most types of insurance, as does the National Society for Insurance and Reinsurance (SONAR-51% state-owned). In 1986, nonlife insurance accounted for 95.7% of all premiums.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Burkina Faso's revenue sources are limited, and the country depends heavily on subsidies from France. An extensive fiscal adjustment program was begun in 1991 with the help of the IMF, that outlined plans for the privatization of state-owned enterprises. Over 40% of government income is derived from customs duties, but $18 million had been netted from parastatal sales by 1999. Personnel expenses account for over 40% of outlays. Budget deficits averaging 10% of GDP during 1998 added significantly to the debt service burden. At least 20% of the government budget is financed by foreign aid.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Burkina Faso's central government took in revenues of approximately $1 billion and had expenditures of $1.3 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$349 million. Total external debt was $1.85 billion.

TAXATION

The contribution of direct taxation of all kinds to the governmental revenue is relatively low. Individuals pay a single income tax, varying from 2–30% on salaries, tips, and other remuneration, and 10-45% on business income. Companies pay a tax on profits, a forfeit tax, and taxes on income from debt and investments. There are also a number of real estate taxes. Sales and transaction taxes are shared by most of the population. Indirect taxes include customs duties and license fees. Burkina Faso also levies a value added tax that varies from 15–20%. There is also a 1% statistical tax and a 1% community solidarity tax. Additional taxes may be levied on industrial and agricultural products, livestock breeding, and fishing industry products.

There are consumption taxes on specified items, such as petroleum products and tobacco, and local taxes on motor vehicles.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Burkina Faso has made several trade reforms in the past decade. Most notably, almost all nontariff barriers to trade have been eliminated and the maximum tariff has been lowered from 200% to 66%, except for petroleum, which still carries a 150% tariff. Additionally, Burkina Faso is working with the World Trade Organization to get its tariff rates within WTO parameters.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Most foreign investments in Burkina Faso come from private French sources; however, investment capital from other EU members has increased in recent years. Under the Investment Code of 1992, the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, and Mines approves new investments based on the recommendations of the National Investment Commission. The principal criterion used is value added, with a minimum acceptable level of 35%. The investment code has three incentive schedules: Schedule "A" for investment under 200 million CFAF (about 390,000), a more generous Schedule "B" for investments above this level, and an even more generous (permanent exemption from all Burkinabe taxes) Schedule "C" for export companies. The 1993 Mining Code regulates foreign mining enterprises. Investment has been sought for hotels, textile factories, agroindustrial projects, communications, and other fields in addition to mining. As of 1996, over 140 companies were holding exploration licenses while total investment in the mining sector amounted to $38 billion. As of the late 1990s, the most promising sectors for foreign interest and investment were the cotton industry and the gold mining industry. Foreign firms must reserve at least 35% of capital for Burkinabe participation and 50% for priority-sector investments.

Between 1997 and 1999, FDI inflow into Burkina Faso averaged $11.77 million, but then jumped to an annual average of $24 million of FDI in 2000 and 2001. France has been the source of most investment with Lebanese investors playing a prominent role in 2001. The only sizeable US investment has been from ExxonMobile in gas distribution.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Development of the agricultural sector and of infrastructure have been the priorities established by Burkina's recent development plans. The 1991–95 plan estimated that 75% of the investment total would be allocated to agriculture. A 1995–97 plan, developed with support by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), included a goal of 5% real annual growth in gross domestic product (GDP), with inflation controlled to a maximum of 3% per year. The plan placed emphasis on privatization and encouragement of foreign investment, particularly in industrial mining. As of the early 2000s, there was considerable interest in mining, especially of gold.

The country regularly receives bilateral and multilateral aid, primarily in technical assistance. France and the United States are the leading bilateral aid donors. Since 1991, Burkina Faso has been supported by relief from the IMF's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF), and a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Burkina Faso reached its completion point for assistance under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative in 2000. The country completed a PRGF arrangement in 2002 that was fully disbursed. A three-year $34 million PRGF arrangement was approved in June 2003 to support the government's economic reform program for 2003–06. The 2002–03 political crisis in Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso's major regional trading partner, had repercussions in Burkina Faso, particularly with regard to the collection of taxes, and to the need for increased humanitarian assistance, border control, and security spending. Spending in 2002 was for goods and services including telephones, electricity, and water. Spending was also necessary for education, health, and other poverty-reducing initiatives.

The economy is expected to expand by 5.2% in 2006, up from 3.5% in 2005, as a result of more efficient agriculture programs, and a stabilized price for cotton. Other sectors with promising potential for the future are gold mining and the services sector (which is expected to grow following increased domestic demand).

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance law provides employed persons with pensions for old age and disability. Spouses of pensioners receive survivor benefits equal to 50% of the insured person's pension. These programs are funded by equal contributions from employers and employees. Retirement age varies according to occupation. Medical coverage is limited to maternity benefits, consisting of 100% of regular earnings payable for 14 weeks. A worker's compensation program provides both temporary and permanent disability benefits and medical benefits. Employment-related family allowances are also paid to families with children under the age of 14. However, most citizens of Burkina Faso are subsistence farmers and fall outside the scope of the social security system.

The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, or ethnic origin, but does not mention sexual discrimination. Women do not have equal opportunities to education and employment, and they do not have the same property rights as men. Spousal abuse is common and polygymy is legal. Female circumcision, also known as female genital mutilation, is still widely practiced. It has been estimated that as much as 70% of the female population has undergone this painful and dangerous procedure. The government is collaborating with nongovernmental organizations to stop this practice. Child abuse remains a widespread problem.

Prison conditions are poor and facilities are overcrowded. Serious human rights violations continue and perpetrators of these abuses are rarely punished.

HEALTH

The government of Burkina Faso took on the project of improving the quality of health services by upgrading facilities and skills, achieving control of endemic parasitic diseases, and strengthening sector institutions. Total health care expenditures were an estimated 4.1% of GDP.

As of 2004, it was estimated that there were as few as 4 physicians per 100,000 people. In addition there were only 26 nurses, and 4 midwives per 100,000 people. However, the hospital at Ouagadougou is one of the most modern in Africa. Medical centers at Bobo-Dioulasso carry on research on insect-borne diseases. Mobile medical units attempt to control leprosy, sleeping sickness, yellow fever, and other contagious diseases.

One of Burkina Faso's most serious health problems is onchocerciasis (river blindness), which touches 84% of the total land area and causes many thousands of people to desert settlements infected by the fly vector. A control program has had some success. About two-thirds of Burkina Faso residents have access to safe water. In early 1997, a meningitis epidemic in West Africa spread to Burkina Faso, resulting in 724 deaths out of 5,571 cases.

The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 92.94 per 1,000 live births. The crude birth rate was 44.34 in 1999. The incidence of low-birth weight babies was 21% in 1993–96. As of 2000, only 12% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. As of 1999, Burkina Faso immunized children up to one year old as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 42% and measles, 53%.

Average life expectancy in 2005 was estimated at 48.45. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 4.20 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 300,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 29,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

In Burkina Faso, 70% of all women undergo female genital mutation. Approximately 3.5 million women and girls were affected. No laws restrict this procedure.

HOUSING

Architecture in the metropolitan centers is essentially French. Many African people, especially the Mossi, live in round huts with conical straw roofs or in rectangular huts with flat roofs.

Burkina Faso has experienced housing shortages in the past few decades primarily due to urbanization and poverty. In Ouagadougou, most houses are built with mud brick and/or plaster. About 10% are made with cement block. In 1991, there were about 1,399,149 households. About 92% of rural dwellings and 65% of urban housing were owner occupied. According to a 2002 report of The World Bank, about 70-80% of the residents in Ouagadougou had access to safe water and sanitation. Only 78% of the total population has access to safe water.

EDUCATION

All public education is free. Primary education is compulsory for six years (ages 6 to 12). Secondary students then have an option of continuing in seven years of general studies or seven to eight years of technical programs. The academic year runs from October to June. The language of instruction is French.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 36% of age-eligible students; 42% for boys and 31% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 9% of age-eligible students; 11% for boys and 7% for girls. It is estimated that only about 29% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 45:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 31:1. In 2000, private schools accounted for about 12% of primary school enrollment and 34% of secondary enrollment.

The Center for Higher Education was established in 1969, and in 1974 it became the University of Ouagadougou. The Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso was organized in 1996. In 2001, there were about 16,000 students enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 12.8%, with 18.5% for males and 8.1% for females.

The primary administrative body is the Ministry of Secondary and Higher Education and Scientific Research. Public expenditure on education has been estimated at about 2% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The largest library, now part of the University of Ouagadougou, was founded in 1969 and had 70,000 volumes as of 2002. Other libraries are attached to institutes such as the Center for Economic and Social Studies of West Africa and the Institute of Environmental and Agricultural Research. There is also a large library (20,000 volumes) attached to the Grand Seminary of Koumi in Bobo-Dioulasso. The French Cultural Center in Ouagadougou holds 30,000 volumes. The National Museum in Ouagadougou has a collection of the ethnography, costumes, and domestic artifacts of Burkina Faso. There is the Museum of Southwest Civilizations in Gaoua, a regional museum in Pobe, and, opened in 1990, a Provincial Museum of Music in Bobo-Dioulasso housing a number of traditional instruments.

MEDIA

Radio, telephone, and telegraph services are available to Paris and to the neighboring countries. In 2003, there were an estimated five mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 12,400 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 19 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Two radio stations, one in Ouagadougou and one in Bobo-Dioulasso, are run by Radiodiffusion Nationale, the government radio corporation. Broadcasts are in French and 13 indigenous languages. There are several independent radio stations. As of 2002, there were a total of 3 AM and 17 FM radio stations. Télévision Nationale du Burkina, the government-owned television transmitting station, was established in 1963. Transmissions are made six days a week and are received only in Ouagadougou and BoboDioulasso. The government has been establishing public viewing centers. There is also one privately operated television station. In 2003, there were an estimated 433 radios and 12 television sets for every 1,000 people. In 2003, there were 2.1 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 4 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were two secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Burkina Faso had seven daily newspapers in 2002, all published in Ouagadougou. L'Observateur Paalga and L'Observateur had the highest circulations (8,000 each). Other dailies included the Bulletin Quotidien D'Information (circulation 1,500), Le Pays (4,000), and Sidwaya (3,000). Several published periodicals, all issued in Ouagadougou, include the Bulletin Economique et Social, (circulation 550) published by the Chamber of Commerce six times a year, and Carrefour Africain, (circulation unavailable) published monthly with government sponsorship. The press agency Agence d'Information du Burkina is based in Ouagadougou.

The 1990 Information Code provides for freedom of speech and freedom of the press, and it is said that these freedoms are in some degree circumscribed by self-censorship, as the government is sensitive to criticism.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Handicrafts of Burkina Faso has its headquarters in Ouagadougou. There is also an Office for the Promotion of Burkinabe Enterprises. The National Farmers Union was created in 1987. Cooperative groups and unions are active, as are employers' and professional groups.

Student movements have played an influential role in national politics. A national student union was founded in 1965 at the University of Ouagadougou. Other youth organizations include chapters of the Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, Junior Chamber, Youth For Christ, Catholic Youth Organization, and Red Cross Youth. There are several sports associations, including those representing such pastimes as tennis, handball, and tae kwon do. There is a national organization for the Special Olympics.

There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Caritas, UNICEF, and Amnesty International.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourist attractions include the Nazinga, Arly, and "W" park game preserves. The National Museum and Museum of Music showcase the rich culture in Burkina. The market in the capital of Burkina, Ouagadougou, boasts crafts, art, and food, along with the Salon International de l'Artisanat de Ouagadougou (International Craft Show of Ouagadougou), the largest craft fair in Africa.

All visitors must have a passport, visa, and certificate of yellow fever vaccination. In 2000, there were 612,787 tourist arrivals. Hotels had an occupancy rate of 59%.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Ouagadougou at $192 per day. Costs were significantly lower outside the capital. Daily expenses in Bobo-Dioulasso were estimated at $90.

FAMOUS BURKINABE

The best-known persons are Maurice Yaméogo (1921–93), a former president of Upper Volta during 1960–66; Moro Naba Kougri (1930–82), the traditional sovereign of the Mossi; and Sangoulé Lamizana (1916–2005), a former army chief of staff, who was president of Upper Volta from 1966 to 1980. Capt. Thomas Sankara (1949?–87), who gained a following in the 1974 clashes with Mali, seized power in a 1983 coup; he was overthrown and executed in 1987. Capt. Blaise Compaoré (b.1951) assumed the presidency after Sankara's execution.

DEPENDENCIES

Burkina Faso has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dun and Bradstreet's Export Guide to Burkina Faso. Parsippany, N.J.: Dun and Bradstreet, 1999.

Engberg-Pedersen, Lars. Endangering Development: Politics, Projects, and Environment in Burkina Faso. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003.

Englebert, Pierre. Burkina Faso: Unsteady Statehood in West Africa. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996.

McFarland, Daniel Miles, and Lawrence A. Rupley. Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1998.

——. Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso [computer file]. Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.