Japanese Buddhism

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Japanese Buddhism

2379

Agon-shu

14518 S. Western Ave.
Gardena, CA 90247

Alternate Address: International Headquarters: Agon-shu Head Temple, 607 Kitakazan Omine-cho, Yamashina, Kyoto, Japan. Canadian Headquarters: Toronto Agon-shu Buddhist Association, 16 Burch Ave., 2nd Floor, Toronto, ON Canada M4V 1C8.

Agon-shu is a form of Japanese Buddhism founded in 1978 by Seiyu Kiriyama (b. 1921) who serves as its Kancho or leader. He had been a member of several different Buddhist groups and in 1954 founded Kannon Jijei-Kai, a small religious group superseded by Agon-shu. The great impetus for the founding of the new organization was the belief that emerged in the 1970s that the Agon (or Agama in Sanskrit) sutras contain the original teachings concerning the path to Buddhahood (enlightenment) and ultimate salvation as given by Buddha. The emergent organization incorporated insights from all three major schools of Buddhism, Mahayana, Hinayana, and the esoteric Buddhism of Tibet. The esoteric practices represent the final stage of development in Buddhist practice. There are also elements of Shinto incorporated in the rites.

While feeling that there is great value in all Buddhist groups, Agon-shu believes that it alone has the full teachings of true and genuine Buddhism. It teaches and practices Jobutsu-ho, the teachings and methods required to attain enlightenment and full salvation, which includes release from karma, the accumulated burden of cause and effect that has decisive influence on one's present life.

Even prior to his founding of Agon-shu, Kiriyama in 1970 held the first Dai-saito-goma Rite, an esoteric Buddhist ceremony centered on prayers offered up in a large outdoor bonfire. Today, the major ceremony of Agon-shu is the Hoshi Matsuri, literally the "Combined Shinto-Buddhist Fire Rites Festival" held near the group's main temple at Kyoto. It is concerned with the destiny of each individual and the reading of the future of each individual's birth star (esoteric astrology).

Agon-shu teachings are grounded in three principles, the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha. The Buddha, or object of worship, is found in the Shinsei-busshari, a bone fragment from Shakyamuni Buddha that is preserved in a gold shrine. The dharma is the actual training members undergo. It consists of the Jobutsu-ho (Buddha's method for attaining enlightenment), the Nyoi Hoju-ho (the esoteric teachings) and the Gumonji Somei-ho (which incorporates elements of Taoism and Tantrism, including kundalini yoga).

Kiriyama has carried on a worldwide program in support of world peace and the spread of true Buddhism. He established centers in Cambodia, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Brazil and eventually the United States (Hawaii and California). In 1989 he opened the Japanese American Agon Friendship Foundation in Washington, D.C.

Membership: Not reported. Agon-shu has a small following in the United States, as it was only established in California in the mid-1990s. It has offices in Japan and in 1990 became the first foreign-based religion to open an office in mainland China, in Beijing.

Remarks: The Agon-shu received some unwanted publicity when it was discovered that Soko Asahara, the founder of AUM Shinrikyo, and one of that group's leaders, Tomomitsu Niimi, had gotten their early training in Agon-shu. In fact, it appears that Asahara began AUM with an assertion that he had surpassed Kiriyama in enlightenment, a fact demonstrated by his levitating before several of the members. This fact accounts for the similarity of teachings between Agon-shu and AUM, but it should be noted that there is no hint of a connection between Agon-shu and the crime allegedly perpetrated by the leaders of AUM.

Sources:

Agon-shu and Its Activities. Tokyo: Agon-shu Public Information Division, 1990. 25 pp.

The Agon-shu: The Original Teachings of the Lord Buddha. Tokyo: Agonshu, 1989 18 pp.

A Short Introduction to the Hoshi Matsuri. N.p.: Agon-shu, n.d. 15 pp.

2380

Aleph

Current address not obtained for this edition.

Formerly known as AUM Supreme Truth, also known by its Japanese name, AUM Shinrikyo. Aleph is a Japanese Buddhist group that became known internationally in 1995 after an incident in which nerve gas was released in a Tokyo subway station and was tied to members of the group. During the summer and fall of 1995, over 100 members of the group, including most of its leadership and its founding leader, Master Shoko Asahara, were arrested and a lengthy judicial process was begun. In the accompanying investigation, a variety of additional capitol crimes were tied to the groups officials as were other incidents of suspected gassings. In the wake of these events, the organization has been totally disrupted in Japan and its immediate future will be one of continued instability.

Aleph was founded by Asahara (born Chizuo Matsumoto in 1955) in Japan in 1987, though it was rooted in another organization that published books and taught yoga. It brought together the teachings he had acquired from his study of tantric yoga, Buddhism, and Taoism, through which he developed a unique training method to bring students to their own enlightenment, a realization of Ones True Self. Asahara was most impressed by the Theravada and Tibetan Buddhist writings which he considered more authentic than those Buddhist scriptures most used by Japanese Buddhists; one of several opinions held by Asahara that contributed to his isolation from other Japanese Buddhist leaders.

According to Asahara, the world consists of the gross world of everyday experiences, the astral world of images that we experience in our dreams, and the causal world of ideas. Above these three is the world of truth, Maha-Nirvana. Aleph practice leads to emancipation, the ability to move freely at will from one world to the next. Supreme bliss and freedom are experienced in Maha-Nirvana (death).

Asahara directed students to the spiritual path called tantrayana, the goal being to become a buddha (enlightened one) in a single lifetime. The path demands total devotion to the guru and his initiations. New members were trained in yoga and meditation, and there was a stringent program of psychic development reminiscent of some of the austerities of Hindu sadhus.

Master Asahara offered three initiations. An earthly initiation included oral instructions on ethics, yoga, meditation, the use of mantras, and other matters leading to a purification of ones consciousness in regards to the gross world. The astral initiation via shukufuku (blessing) and shaktipat (awakening the kundalini energy) purifies one's consciousness, relative to the astral world. The causal initiation purifies ones superconsciousness and includes the transfer of energy from the master to the trainee. The causal initiation leads directly to emancipation and enlightenment. Ritual accompanying the initiations included the consumption of some of the bath water of the guru (a rite derived from an incident in Gautama Buddhas life in which followers consumed water from a pond in which he had washed), and some of his blood.

Those who passed through the three initiations were considered more spiritually advanced, and many were admitted into the ordered life. The monastic community, which included approximately ten to fifteen percent of the Japanese membership, lived at Aleph facilities. The development of the ordered community, not a prominent part of Japanese Buddhist life, further separated Aleph from the mainstream of Japanese Buddhism and also led to protests by many parents of Aleph members who felt that Aleph was disruptive of family units.

Organizationally, Aleph was modeled after the Japanese government. It was divided into various departments each headed by a minister. Ministries included Health and Welfare, Science and Technology, Intelligence, Medical, Home Affairs, and Construction. Aleph was headquartered at a rural center called Kaikuishiki, Yamanashi Prefecture near Mount Fuji. The organization operated a hospital in Tokyo and members formed many businesses aligned to the groups program.

Along with the Buddhist theology and psychic development program, Master Asahara had a fascination with prophecy and was a student of the Christian New Testament book of Revelation and the writings of Nostradamus. Through the early 1990s, he made a variety of predictions concerning the future of Japan including World War III/Armageddon in the later half of the 1990s. The public's awareness of these predictions was heightened following the unsuccessful bid by Asahara and the 24 other candidates who ran as members of Aleph in the 1990 national elections. The various enterprises organized by AUM were in part designed to survive the apocalypse and emerge unscathed in the aftermath of the destruction of social order.

The first American branch of the Aleph was opened in 1987 in New York City. While it survived for a period after the gas incident, it has subsequently disappeared.

Membership: Prior to the arrests in the summer of 1995, Aleph reported some 50,000 members worldwide, of which 10,000 were in Japan and 40,000 in Russia. Several hundred members were found in New York City, Sri Lanka, and Germany.

Periodicals: Truth Monthly.

Remarks: The period of unstable existence that followed the gas incident and the subsequent arrest of Asahara and most of the group's leadership has continued as the time-consuming process of adjudicating the charges against the principles proceeds. As this edition goes to press, Asahara's trail continues, additional revelation of crimes committed by those in custody are being revealed, and the initial sentences are being pronounced. The government moved to disincorporate the group, its properties were seized, and it was forced into bankruptcy. In the wake of these actions, and the arrest of the last of the major leaders, Fumihiro Joyu, who had become the group's spokesperson in the months after the gassing, many predicted the group's disappearance. However, in 1996, the court ruled that, with the accused in jail, the group (the over-whelming majority of members having no involvement or knowledge of the acts of its leadership) Aum Shinrikyo no longer posed a public threat and has allowed it to continue.

In wake of the courts ruling, the group which had been completely decimated by the governments's action against it, has begun to rebuild. As of early 1998, it appeared to have approximately 2,000 members in Japan (about twenty percent of its size in 1995). Its activities remain under close observation of the police, but activities have been centered on the previous religious practices. Asahara's sons, both still children, have been designated the official gurus of the group until such time as Asahara might be released (the prospect of which is highly unlikely).

The number of crimes, including the deaths of various people not connected to the gassing, have been revealed. Together, the crimes committed by Aleph's leadership constitute most destructive serial crime wave ever in the country's history. The national trauma that the Japanese experienced has led to the passing of a new law that tightens government control of religious groups.

Sources:

Asahara, Shoko. Supreme Initiation. New York: AUM, U.S.A., 1988.

——. Disaster Approaches the Land of the Rising. Hitoana Fujuinimiya, Shizuyoko, Japan: AUM Shinrikyo Publishing Co., 1995.

——. Tathagata Abhidhamma: The Ever-Winning Law of the True Victors. 2 vols. Hitoana, Fujuinimiya, Shizuoka, Japan: AUM Shinrikyo Publishing Co., 1991–92.

——. The Teaching of Truth. 5 vols. Hitoana, Fujuinimiya, Shizuoka, Japan: AUM Shinrikyo Publishing Co. 1991–92.

Your Daily Practice. A Book of Esoteric Teachings: The Tantra Vajrayana System of Practice. Japan, AUM Shinrikyo, n.d.

Reader, Ian. A Poisonous Cocktail? AUM Shinrikyo's Path to Violence. Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 1996. 116pp.

——. Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan: The Case of Aum Shinrikyo. London: Curzon Press/Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,2000.

2381

Bodaiji Mission

1251 Elm
Honolulu, HI 96814

The Bodaiji Mission was founded in 1930 by Nisshyo Takao, the Holy Interpreter. It is continued by Roy S. Takakuwa as an independent congregation teaching "True Buddhism." Takakuwa is a baker in Honolulu, but he also serves as the sole teacher and priest. The bakery provides the total support for the mission, because no donations are allowed. The teaching of the mission is described as empirical, moving from fact to the source of facts.

The basic concept of Bodaiji teachings is Dai-O-Kyo, filial piety, the lack of which is a great cause of discord and trouble. Filial piety begins in Yojomanjo, the unconditional salvation of true motherhood. Just as motherhood was the source of our nurture, so cooperation, coexistence, and right living lead us to universal salvation. True Buddhism teaches how to live rightly.

An acceptence of the law of cause and effect underlies the teachings; where there is something wrong, one finds the cause and changes it. Thus, when one adopts a program of right living, salvation will come.

Healing is a concept basic to right living. Each person who comes for healing must stick to a rigid diet and must learn to breathe properly. Holy water is also used. Meditation is advised for all for fifteen minutes each day to replenish energy.

Membership: In 1982 there were approximately 100 members. There is but a single congregation, and no membership roll is kept.

2382

Chowado Henjo Kyo

(Defunct)

Chowado Henjo Kyo was a Buddhist healing body founded by the Rev. Reisai Fujita, a former priest in the Shingi Shingon Chizan (a Shingon group without representatives in America). The worship and temple arrangement was typical of Shingon practice, and Kobo Daishi was worshipped. However, the healing experience and resultant teaching of the Reverend Fujita were the essential aspects of Chowado. Fujita, in spite of his success as a Shingon priest, was affilicted by chronic stomach and intestinal trouble that led to tuberculosis and paralysis. He tried unsuccessfully the method of Hakuin, the Zen priest, but soon discovered that he needed physical exercises as well as spiritual healing. Beginning with the practice of breathing, he developed a system which led to his cure. In 1906, he decided to devote his life to helping others as he had been helped.

Fujita's physical exercises, which were mastered by church members, included regulated breathing and harmony exercises of various parts of the body. The stomach, the most important part of the body, was singled out for special consideration; the correctly exercised abdomen was, according to Fujita, "gourd-shaped."

As part of his evangelistic endeavors, Fujita went to Hawaii in 1929 en route to California. In Hawaii he found both a need and an audience ready to listen. He sent his student companion on to California and ministered to the Japanese community in Hawaii, instead of going on to California. The mission flourished during the 1930's but was severely hurt by the war. After the war, Fujita moved to Honolulu and operated from a two-story church in Honolulu. The single congregation dissolved in 1990.

2383

Dharma Sangha

Current address not obtained for this edition.

After leaving the Zen Center of San Francisco, California, Richard Baker, Roshi continued to teach independently for several years. He retained the loyalty of some of his students from earlier days and gained a new following. In early 1985 he announced the formation of a new group, Dharma Sangha. The group purchased a building in San Francisco as a center and also opened a graduate seminary in Santa Fe, New Mexico. The San Francisco center contains a lecture and meditation hall. The Santa Fe center will be for the training of senior students. Dharma Sangha is conceived as a lay-centered organization.

Membership: Not reported.

Sources:

"Baker Roshi Forms New Group." Vajradhatu Sun (March 1985): 4.

2384

Gedatsu Church of America

Current address not obtained for this edition.

The Gedatsu Church was formed by Gedatsu Kongpo (posthumous title of Shoken Okano), a priest in the Shugendo sect of Shingon Buddhism. Born in 1881, he rose to the rank of archbishop. In 1929, he founded the Gedatsu movement in his own town. A student of comparative religion, Gedatsu Konpgo borrowed freely from Shinto and Christianity to produce an eclectic Buddhist teaching.

According to Gedatsu, man desires wealth, fame, sex, food, and rest. Man runs into trouble whenever the search for these five, so necessary for survival, becomes directed solely to self-satisfaction. He then falls into the tragedies of life and suffers from ignorance of karmic law, hereditary problems, and selfish thoughts. The object of religion is to move from the problems and suffering of the present to the state of enlightenment—calm resignation and complete peace of mind. (By the law of karma, a person must experience the consequences of his or her actions.)

Gedatsu offers a method of attaining enlightenment through the development of wisdom, the purification of emotion, and the improvement of will power. Wisdom is developed by meditation on the symbol "AJI." The emotions are purified by service to the souls of ancestors and other spiritual entities. Will power is improved by the Way of the Holy Goho, a progressive method of disciplining the mind and spirit that can dissolve the bonds of karma.

Underlying the Gedatsu doctrine is the concept of universal law and universal truth. The universal law is the power of nature, absolutely unchangeable and indestructible. It is seen in the regular cycles of nature. This law also functions to bring to enlightenment those who follow the path.

Center of Gedatsu worship is the Goreichi Spiritual Sanctuary. This shrine is the resting place of all spirits and houses the Tenjinchigi, the spirit of the supreme creator, the source of the universal law. The shrine also contains a statue of Fudo Myo-Oh, who has the power to conquer all evil. Other bodhisattvas are also represented. A semiannual Thanksgiving Festival is observed in the spring and fall, and the Annual Roku Jizo Festival is observed in June. All are noteworthy for their ceremony. Central to all worship is Kuyo, the act of humbly repaying by absolute gratitude all the sources to which one is indebted. Kuyo is ritualized in the Nectar Service during which spirits in a state of unrest are brought to rest.

Gedatsu was brought to the United States in the late 1940s and incorporated in 1951. It has headquarters in San Francisco, and it maintains ten churches, including those in Sacramento, San Jose, Stockton, and Los Angeles, California. The Goreichi Shrine is in Mayhew, a Sacramento suburb. There is one temple in Honolulu.

Membership: Not reported.

Sources:

Gedatsu Ajikan Kongozen Meditation. San Francisco: Gedatsu Church of America, 1974.

Kishida, Eizan. Dynamic Analysis of Illness through Gedatsu. N.p., 1962.

Manual for Implementation of Gedatsu Practice. San Francisco: Gedatsu Church of America, 1965.

Yanagawa, Keiichi. Japanese Religions in California. Tokyo: Department of Religious Studies, University of Tokyo, 1983.

2385

Hawaii Council of Jodo Mission

℅ Jodo Mission of Hawaii
1429 Makiki St.
Honolulu, HI 96814

Alternate Address: International Headquarters: 400-8 Hayashishita Machi, Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto, Japan 605.

From the landing of the first 153 Japanese immigrants in 1868 until 1894, almost 30,000 Japanese arrived in Hawaii, most to work on the extensive plantation being developed there. They lived a demoralizing existence working (often at hard labor) 12-hour days and with no fixed days off. Gradually news of the living conditions made its way back to Japan and, given that most of the Japanese laborers were Buddhists, the major Buddhist denominations decided to respond. In 1894, Jodo Shu sent two clergymen, Revs. Matsuwo Taijyo and Okabe Gekuwo to comfort and reconstruct the lives of the demoralized workers.

For his efforts, Rev. Matsuwo caught tuberculosis and died a few years later while attempting to construct a temple at Kapaa on the island of Kauai. Rev. Okabe worked on the big island of Hawaii and succeeded in founding the first Jodo Mission at Hamakua in 1896. In subsequent years additional clergymen spread the work and built additional temples. Eventually 15 came to exist on Oahu, Maui, Kauai, and Hawaii. the Jodo movement celebrated its 100th anniversary, dated from the arrival of its initial two clergymen, in 1994. It is led by Chikai Shibamura.

In 1969 a nonprofit American religious entity was incorporated as the Hawaii Council of Jodo Missions. The council is an autonomous organization but cooperates with and receives guidance from Jodo Shu, headquartered in Japan. There is one Jodo Mission on continental North America, the Jodo Mission of Los Angeles, which operates an extension school of the Buddhist University of Kyoto, Japan.

Membership: In 1997 there were 15 temples in Hawaii and a membership 1,800. There was a single temple in Los Angeles.

Periodicals: Jodo Mission of Hawaii. • Hawaii Buddhism.

Sources:

Fung, Gordon L., and Gregory Fung. "Adaptating Jodo-Shinshu Teaching for the West: An Approach Based on the American Work Ethic." Pacific World. New series 9 (Fall 1993): 24-31.

Light of Asia. Honolulu: Hawaii Jodo Mission, 1962.

Matsunami, Kodo. Introducing Buddhism. Honolulu: Hawaii Jodo Mission, 1965.

Tabrah, Ruth. Buddhism, "A Modern Way of Life and Thought." Honolulu: Hawaii Jodo Mission, 1969.

2386

Higashi Hongwanji Buddhist Church

505 E. Third St.
Los Angeles, CA 90013

Quickly following the Buddhist Churches of America, the largest of the Shin Buddhist groups, was the Higashi Hongwanji. However, since it has done little to Westernize, it has been slower to spread. In 1899, Shizuka Sazanami began to work on Kauai in Hawaii, where a temple was constructed in Waimea. It was 1916 before a temple appeared in Honolulu. On the mainland, the Higashi Honganji began with Rev. Junjyo Izumida who, in 1904, established the Los Angeles Buddhist Mission as an outpost of the Honpa Hongwanji. Two other churches were also formed in Los Angeles, and soon a rivalry developed between them. In 1917 a merger of the three congregations was ratified. Izumida, however, opposed the merger and, in a court suit, won the property of the congregation he had led. In 1921 he joined the Higashi Honganji and brought the congregation with him. Shortly after the establishment of the Higashi Honganji in Los Angeles, a second temple was opened in Berkeley, California. A third was added in Chicago after World War II. The Chicago temple, under the leadership of Gyomay Kubose also sponsors a Zen center. Kubose, who serves as both a Shin priest and Zen master, follows in the pattern of the late Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, the most famous member of the Higashi Honganji (at least to Western audiences). The American branch of the Higashi Honganji is presided over by Gyoko Saito, the priest in Los Angeles.

Membership: In 1982 there were 1,800 members in six churches in Hawaii. There are three temples in the continental United States, though there are several branch churches attached to the Los Angeles temple.

Periodicals: The Way.

Sources:

Akegarasu, Haya. The Fundamental Spirit of Buddhism. Trans. by Gyomay M. Kubose. Chicago: Buddhist Temple of Chicago, 1977.

——. Shout of Buddha. Trans. by Gyoko Saito and Joan Sweany. Chicago: Orchid Press, 1977.

Higashi Hongwanji Dedication-1976. Los Angeles: Higashi Hongwanji Buddhist Church, 1976.

Jodo Shinshu. Tokyo: Otani University, 1961.

Kiyozuma, Manshi. December Fan. Trans. by Nobuo Haneda. Kyoto, Japan: Higashi Hongwanji, 1984.

Suzuki, Beatrice Lane. Mahayana Buddhism. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

Suzuki, D. T. Shin Buddhism. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

2387

Honpa Hongwanji Buddhis

℅ Buddhist Churches of America
1710 Octavia St.
San Francisco, CA 94109

Alternate Address: Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii, 1727 Pali Hwy., HI 96813; Buddhist Churches of Canada, 220 Jackson, Vancouver, BC V6A 3B3.

The Honpa Hongwanji sect, one of the major representatives of Jodo Shinshu Buddhism in Japan, is represented in North America by three separate organizations, of which reports directly to the international headquarters in Kyoto. Shinshu Buddhists began to arrive in Hawaii, the mainland of the United States, and Canada in the 1880s, and through the twentieth century a Buddhist Mission spread through the Japanese community and has been a major bridge leading to the accommodation of that community to American ways. The Honpa Hongwanji is one of three prime groups teaching Pureland Shin Buddhism.

The Buddhist Churches of America has headquarters in San Francisco. Congregations in the United States are divided into seven administrative districts; four on the Pacific Coast, and one each for the Northwest, the Mountain States, and the Eastern States. Since 1996, Bp. Hakubum Watanabe has presided over the organization, assisted by a board of directors and a representative national council who oversees administrative functions.

The Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii, headquartered in Honolulu, is headed by Bp. Chikai Yosemori. Until World War II, the bishop was appointed from the international headquarters, but since then the Hawaiian members elect their bishop, who serves three-year terms. In 1967, Kanmo Imamura, the son of Bp. Yemyo Imamura, the long-time bishop who did so much for the Buddhist cause in Hawaii prior to World War II, began a term as bishop.

The Jikoen Hongwanji Temple in Honolulu was built in 1938 as a center for Okinawan Shinshu immigrants who had come to Hawaii during the 1920s and 1930s. It functions as a member of the Honpa Hongwanji.

In Canada, the first Shinshu church was organized in 1904. The work in Canada gradually separated from the American organization in a process culminating a short time after the end of World War II.

Membership: In 1997, the Buddhist Churches of America reported 16,000 members in 61 independent churches and six branches served by 60 ministers. There were 35 branches throughout the Hawaiian Islands. There were 10,000,000 members worldwide.

Educational Facilities: Institute for Buddhist Studies, Berkeley, California.

American Buddhist Academy, New York, New York.

Periodicals: Horin (in Japanese). • Pacific World. • Wheel of Dharma (in English).

Sources:

Buddhist Churches of America, 75 Year History, 1899-1974. 2 vols. Chicago: Norbet, 1974.

Buddhist Handbook for Shin-shu Followers. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1969.

Shin Buddhist Handbook. Honolulu: Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii, 1972.

Traditions of Jodoshinshu Hongwanji-Ha. Los Angeles: Senshin Buddhist Temple, 1982.

2388

Kailas Shugendo

Current address not obtained for this edition.

The Kailas Shugendo was founded by Dr. Neville G. Pemchekov-Warwick, known to his followers as Ajari. Shugendo is an old Buddhist tradition that borrows from pre-Buddhist Japanese shamanism and mountain religion. Ajari has been conducting Shugendo practices since 1940 and is termed Dai Sendatsu, which allows him to start his own movement. His background is Russian Buddhist, and he immigrated to America in the 1960s.

Central to the Shugendo is fire worship. Twice a day, members observe Goma, the fire ceremony. The ritual master conducts while the members chant. Once a week Hiwatari, fire purification, is performed. Members walk the sacred fire but are not burned. At intervals, members go to the mountains for ascetic practices— shugyo (climbing the mountain while chanting mantra), going under ice-cold waterfalls, and hanging people off rocks. Music is also a part of daily life. Headquarters of the ashram are in San Francisco, California, where it offers musical and cultural presentations to the Bay Area community and performs emergency community services.

Membership: Not reported.

2389

Karuna Tendai Dharma Center

1525 Rte. 295
East Chatham, NY 12060

The Karuna Tendai Dharma Center is a single outpost of the Japanese Tendai tradition, a significant element of Japanese Buddhism that has but few followers in North America. The temple was founded in 1994 by Monshin (Paul) Naamon and his wife Tamani Naamon, who had gone to Japan for study in 1988. Monshin returned as the Dharma son of Ichishima Shoshin, who occasionally travels from Japan to teach.

The temple is located on a former Shaker farmstead, the barn having been converted into a zendo. It was the desire of the Naamons to create a village-style temple in a rural area suggestive of the mountainous areas of Asia, and the intention to integrate the life of the temple into that of the larger community. There is no convent or monastery.

Tendai is a Vajrayana Buddhist school and one of the oldest introduced into Japan. As such it became a root school for many of the modern Japanese Buddhist groups. Tendai believers, however, treat the three vehicles (Mahayana, Hinayana, and Vajrayana) as one. Activities at the temple center on the Wednesday evening meditation service which includes a Dharma talk and potluck dinner. Order of Interbeing meditations (based on the teachings of Thich Nhat Hanh) are held twice monthly. Also, a wide range of classes, lectures, festivals, and retreats are sponsored. A vegetarian diet is preferred. The temple also operates the Bodhi Tree Inn, a bed & breakfast facility open to the public.

Membership: As of 1998, there were approximately 30 members affiliated with the temple.

Sources:

Morreale, Don. The Complete Guide to Buddhist America. Boston: Shambhala, 1998.

2390

Kofuku no Kagaku (The Science of Human Happiness)

3848 Carson St., Ste. 104
Torrance, CA 90503

Alternate Address: International headquarters: 1-2-38 Higashi Gotanda, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 141-0022.

Kofuku no Kagaku, known in the United States as the Institute for Research in Human Happiness (IRH), is a Japanese "new, new religion" (shin shin shukyo), a designation of religious groups that have grown up among those generations born after World war II. Kofuku no Kagaku began in Tokyo in 1986. Its founder, Okawa Ryuhu (b. 1956) studied law at Tokyo Imperial University, during which time he came to believe that he was the incarnation of a spirit being known as El Cantare (the title by which he is known in the movement today). In his key book, The Laws of the Sun(1990), Okawa described his role as the one who reveals the "rising of the Sun of God's Truth." He thus provides human beings with essential light and energy that is often prevented from reaching them by "dark clouds."

During its first decade, the movement grew phenomenally. Just four years after its founding, Okawa announced a new program, "Sunrise 90," to raise the Sun of Truth, i.e., spread the name of the movement throughout Japan. In the next year, some 77,000 people joined the movement. Sunrise 90 was followed by the "miracle three year project," a program directed to make Kofuku no Kagaku the largest and most influential religion in Japan. Then in 1994, a coordinated missionary program was initiated to establish the movement in countries outside Japan that led quickly to the first overseas offices being opened, in London and New York.

In spite of its use of high-tech mass communications, including the production of several feature films, growth overseas has not followed the early success in Japan, though some moderate growth was experienced in Brazil where there is a large Japanese expatriate community.

Okawa has written a number of books, the best known of which is The Laws of the Sun, which provides a summary of movement's teachings and has assumed the status of a sacred text. Other popular titles include The Laws of Gold (1991) and The Laws of Eternity (1991). He has also written about an imminent apocalypse to be followed by a utopia in which everyone can declare without any reservations that they are happy. Happiness comes from living with a mind and heart full of love and compassion. This, according to Okawa, begins in the mind and heart of believers who then transmits to others. There are four basic Principles of Happiness: love, knowledge, development, and self-reflection. The practice of these principles is said to enable an individual to acquire the right-mindfulness that is a necessary precondition for happiness. Of the four, the most important is love whose essence is giving. The practice of love is the beginning of happiness. At the same time, Kofuku no Kagaku also emphasizes its Buddhist roots and the three Buddhist treasures, the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha (community).

Kofuku no Kagaku's headquarters are in Tokyo, though two additional centers, the Shoshin-Ken (House of the Right Mind) and the Mirai-kan (House of the Future), in Utsonomyia (northeast of Tokyo) are also regarded as the Shoshin-Kan or main temple. Members began to migrate from Japan to North America (as well as Europe and South America) in the 1970s and the earliest centers gathered in the 1980s.

Membership: Not reported. American centers are found in San Francisco, Los Angeles and Orange County, California, Fort Lee, New Jersey, and Honolulu, Hawaii. Canadian centers are found in Toronto and Vancouver. Besides centers across Japan, additional centers are found in the United Kingdom, Brazil, Hong Kong, and Korea. There are some 3,000 members in Brazil.

Periodicals: Utopia, 3848 Carson St., Ste. 104, Torrance, CA90503.

Sources:

Kofuku no Kagaku. http://www.irhpress.co.jp/. 15 January 2002.

Los Angeles IRH center. http://people.we.mediaone.net/mshughes/. 15 January 2002.

Trevor. Astley. "The Transformation of a Recent Japanese New Religion. Okawa Ryuhu and Kofuku no Kagaku." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 22, 3-4 (1995): 343-380.

Masaki Fukui. "Kofuku no Kagaku. The Institute for Research in Human Happiness (IRH)." In Peter B. Clarke, ed., A Bibliography of Japanese New Religions. Eastbourne (Kent): Japan Library, 1999, pp. 149-167.

Okawa, Ryuhu. The Laws of the Sun. The Revelations of Buddha that Enlightens the New Age. Tokyo: IRH Press Ltd., 1990.

——. The Laws of Gold. Tokyo: IRH Press Ltd., 1991.

——. The Laws of Eternity. Tokyo: IRH Press Ltd., 1991.

2391

Kongosatta-In Tendai Buddhist Temple

Current address not obtained for this edition.

Alternate Address: International Headquarters: Hieizan-Enryakuji, Sakamoto Honmachi, Otsu-Shi, Shiga-Ken, Japan.

The Tendai Sect of Japanese Buddhism originated in a monastery in China in the T'ien T'ai mountains. It was developed by Chih K'ai (538-597). Chih K'ai believed the Lotus Sutra to contain the essential embodiment of Buddhism. Buddhism had progressed through several periods leading up to the Lotus Sutra. The teachings flourished over the next few centuries and the T'ien T'ai movement became quite prominent in China. However, in the middle of the ninth century it came under heavy persecution and rapidly declined.

At the beginning of the ninth century, Dengyo Dhashi introduced T'ien T'ai Buddhism into Japan where it became known as the Tendai school. A center was established near Kyoto, Japan, on Mt. Hiei. Dengyo Dhashi taught that Buddha was the historical manifestation of a more primordial Buddha-nature, which may appear at any time. The appearance will assist in the universal attainment of Buddhahood. Gautama Buddha attained such Buddhahood in its fullness. Further, the goal of individual life is the attainment of Buddhahood; all other activity is ultimately in vain except for striving for such.

The Tendai is among the most recent of the Japanese schools to come to America. Its first center was opened in Missouri in the 1980s.

Membership: There are approximately 20 members of the single Tendai center. There are three million Tendai Buddhists worldwide, including a strong following in Brazil.

Sources:

A Dictionary of Buddhism. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972.

2392

Nichiren Mission

3058 Pali Hwy.
Honolulu, HI 96817

Alternate Address: International headquarters: Nichiren-shu, 1-31-15 Ikegami, Ota-ku, Tokyo, Japan; Mainland United States headquarters: Nicheren Order of North America, 3570 Mona Way, San Jose, CA 95130.

Nichiren (1222-1282) was a famous Buddhist reformer. In 1253 he began to preach a new doctrine—that salvation lay in the Lotus Sutra, the most famous Buddhist sanskrit text. The theme of the Lotus Sutra is the nature of Buddha's manifestations. Nichiren believed that the Lotus Sutra taught a combination of the methodologies of the other Buddhist groups—the ways of transformation, bliss and law. Rather than call upon the Amida Buddha, as in Shin Buddhist practice, one should call upon the Lotus Sutra. Daimoku, a repetitive chant of "Namu myoho renge kyo" (reverence to the wonderful law of the Lotus), became and remains the distinctive practice of the Nichiren Buddhists. Nichiren believed that the teachings known as the Lotus Sutra constituted pristine, true Buddhism and could unite the many Buddhist sects.

Nichiren divided history into the following three millennia: shobo, the period of the true law, which was the first millennium beginning at Buddha's death; zobo, or image law, the second millennium; and mappo, or end of the law, which is to last 10,000 years. During mappo, which began in 1052 C.E., the Lotus was the way of salvation. Since the Lotus was perfect, all Japanese should yield to it and allow it to spread. According to Chinese figuring, Buddha died in 949 B.C.E. (By Western figuring, he died in 486 B.C.E.) Nichiren followed the Chinese date. The first millenium was the period of Hinayana Buddhism; the second, of Provisional Mahayana Buddhism; the third, of the True Mahayana Buddhism treated in the Lotus Sutra.

The worship of the Nichiren Buddhist is centered upon the repetition of the Lotus chant. This act is performed in front of the gohonzon, a mandala upon which the chant is inscribed along with the names of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and other Buddhist deities and personalities.

Nichiren was an ardent advocate of his new cause; so dogmatic were his polemics that he angered other Buddhists. He died seeking the union of his ideas with Japan's national policy. The Nichiren Buddhists never reached their goal, but they have become one of the five largest Japanese Buddhist denominations.

Members of the Nichiren-shu (Nichiren religion) built a temple on the island of Hawaii at Pahala in 1902. This temple served the Japanese immigrants who had come to work on the plantations. In 1912 one more was added on Oahu, now the headquarters of the Nichiren Mission of Hawaii under the leadership of Bishop Senchu Murano.

An independent Nichiren congregation was established on Oahu in 1931 by a priest of the Kempon Hokke Sect (one of the Japanese Nichiren groups) under the name "Honolulu Myohoji." This temple joined the Nichiren Mission in 1979. It enshrines part of the relics of the Buddha. The Pahala Nichiren Temple ceased to exist in 1959 because of the evacuation of the Japanese people from the district, and it has recently been transferred to a Tibetan Buddhist group. Other temples have been added on the various islands. The Hawaiian temples are under the leadership of Bishop Senchu Murano.

Nichiren Buddhism came to California with the early Japanese immigrants. In 1914 the first temple was organized. It subsequently spread to Japanese communities across the United States. After World War II a national headquarters was established in Chicago, Illinois, which has more recently moved to San Jose, California. It is under the leadership of Bishop Ryusho Matsuda.

Membership: In 1988 there were 600 members and seven temples in Hawaii. The mainland membership was not reported. Affiliated temples were located in Japan, Korea, and Brazil with a reported worldwide membership of 8,000,000.

Educational Facilities: Rissho University, Tokyo, Japan.
Minobusan Junior College, Minobu, Yamanashi-ken, Japan.

Periodicals: The Newsletter.

Sources:

Anesaki, Masaharu. Nichiren, the Buddhist Prophet. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1949.

Hasu No Oshie (The Teachings of the Lotus). Honolulu: Nichiren YBA of Honolulu, 1962.

A History of Nichiren Buddhism in Hawaii. Honolulu: Nichiren Mission of Hawaii, 1982.

Murano, Senchu. An Outline of the Lotus Sutra. Minobu-San, Japan: Kuonji Temple, 1969.

Nichiren-Buddhist Service Companion. Chicago: Headquarters of the

Nichiren Buddhist Temple of North America, 1968.

2393

Nichiren Shoshu Temple

℅ Myohoji Temple
1401 N. Crescent Heights Blvd.
West Hollywood, CA 90046

"The Orthodox School of Nichiren," Nichiren Shoshu is the 750-year old denomination following the teachings of Nichiren Daishonin (1222-1282), whom the school reverse as the "True Buddha" for this time period, called the Latter Day of the Law. Its head temple, known as Taisekiji, was founded in 1290 and is located at the foot of Mt. Fuji near Fujinomiya City in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan.

Shortly after Nichiren Daishonin passed away, his followers divided into several factions. There were disagreements over a number of issues, including sharing the responsibility for the upkeep and vigil over Nichiren Daishonin's tomb. Most important were disagreements over basic doctrinal issues. In 1290 one of the six main disciples of Nichiren, Nikko Shonin (1246-1332) separated from the other five in a dispute over the upkeep of Nichiren=s tomb. But the dispute also had a doctrinal element. Nikko Shonin taught that Daishonin was the Eternal True Buddha from the infinite past who appeared in the Latter Day of the Law to reveal the True Teaching by which all humanity could attain enlightenment. Most of the other disciples regarded Shakyamuni Buddha as the true eternal Buddha, and considered themselves to be priests loosely connected to the Tendai school. There were also disagreements over the correct object of worship, and the correct interpretation of the Lotus Sutra and its two main sections, the Theoretical Gate Teaching (Jp Shakumon), which constitutes the first 14 chapters, and the True Gate Teaching (Jp Honmon), which constitutes the second 14 chapters, and their respective rank of superiority.

Nikko Shonin left the main temple at Mt. Minobu and took with him Nichiren Daishonin's ashes, various writings and sacred treasures, and the Dai-Gohonzon, inscribed in the form of a camphor wood mandala. In 1290, Nikko Shonin founded the head temple Taisekiji, and there enshrined the Dai-Gohonzon where it remains today.

Nichiren Shoshu upholds a principle called the "Lifeblood Heritage of the Law." This doctrine teaches that Nichiren Daishonin transferred the mystic entity or essence of his enlightened life to Nikko Shonin, the second high priest, who passed it down to Nichimoku Shonin, the third high priest. This Heritage of the Law has been passed down face to face by each successive high priest to the next in an unbroken line for 750 years. The current high priest is Nikken Shonin, the 67th successor to the Heritage of the Law from the True Buddha. The high priest is considered to be the undisputed master of this school.

The high priest is the only person authorized to transcribe the Dai-Gohonzon. From his transcription, individual Gohonzons are made. They are issued by the priests at local temples to the believers of Nichiren Shoshu throughout the world so that they can conduct their daily practice in their homes. The doctrines of the True Buddha, the Heritage of the Law, and the Dai-Gohonzon are the most important teachings that distinguish Nichiren Shoshu from other Nichiren Sects, such as Nichiren-Shu.

The daily practice of a Nichiren Shoshu believer involves the essential practice of chanting "Nam-Myoho-Renge-Kyo" to the Gohonzon with faith. This is called chanting Daimoku. Also, twice per day, a recitation of part of the second chapter and all of the sixteenth chapter of the Lotus Sutra is conducted in front of the Gohonzon. This is the supporting practice and is called Gongyo. All Nichiren Shoshu local temples have a resident chief priest who conducts daily Gongyo and Daimoku, and many ceremonies and activities. Most believers have a Gohonzon enshrined in an altar in their homes where they can conduct their practice.

Nichiren Daishonin taught that when the entire world took faith in his teachings and believed in the Dai-Gohonzon, the world would become purified and tranquil and all people would enjoy living happy lives together. A state of world peace and harmony will be achieved. This is called Kosen-rufu, and is the ultimate goal of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism. For this reason, the believers are encouraged to actively engage in propagating the teaching. This evangelistic practice is called shakubuku.

Nichiren Shoshu came to the United States through the immigration of its members to Hawaii and the West coast after World War II. However, the organization of work was largely the result of the arrival of leaders from Soka Kyoiki Gakkai (Creative Education Society), a Nichiren Shoshu lay movement founded in Japan in 1930. Repressed prior to world War II, it experienced growth in the decades after the war. In 1957, Soka Gakkai leader Masayasu Sadanaga moved to the United States during the following year began holding meetings in Washington D.C. The American Chapter of Soka Gakkai was organized in 1960 following the visit of Soka Gakkai International=s president Daisaku Ikeda.

In 1965, the group build the first Nichiren Shoshu temple that was constructed in Etiwanda, California. Over the next decade additional temples were opened in Chicago. San Francisco, Honolulu, and suburban New York City, and Washington D.C., each location being in an urban center with a large Japanese ethnic community. Each temple was headed by one or more priests sent from Japan. Through the 1980's the temples and the lay organization worked closely together, though Soka Gakkai had numerous centers across North America, most of which were not geographically close to one of the six temples and most members were not trained in temple worship.

During the late 1980's tension between the Soka Gakkai and the Nichiren Shoshu in Japan began to emerge and in 1990 became a public controversy. Then in 1991, Nichiren Shoshu excommunicated President Ikeda and cast the Soka Gakkai from the Nichiren Shoshu organization. As a result, the six temples in the United States and the Soka Gakkai went their separate ways. A polemic and legal war has continued between the two groups, and in 1997, the Nichiren Shoshu ordered all of its members to disassociate themselves from the Soka Gakkai by November 30, 1997, or face losing their membership status.

The Nichiren Shoshu Internet site is at http://www.nst.org.

Membership: In 2002 Nichiren Shoshu reported more than 700 local temples in Japan, six temples in the United States, and temples in Europe, Brazil, Africa, and Taiwan. There are 21 temples, propagation centers, and offices outside of Japan. There are an estimated 350,000 believers worldwide, including approximately 7,000 in the United States, Canada, and Central America.

Periodicals: Nichiren Shoshu Monthly.

Remarks: Since World War II, as Soka Gakkai has grown in Japan, it has been strongly opposed by other Buddhist groups. First, Nichiren Shoshu articulated the doctrine of obutsu myogo, i.e., a government essentially aligned with Buddhism. It called for the unification of imperial authority and Buddhism as well as the designation of Buddhism as the state religion. To this end it entered the field of politics. By 1955, it had manifested a remarkable ability to have its candidates elected. In 1964, a political party, the Komei Kai, was organized and it soon became the third largest party in the Japanese Upper House. In 1965, the party elected 20 members. Secondly, in its evangelical efforts, it taught the practice of shaku-buku, literally "bend and flatten," the name given to the high pressure recruitment tactics used on potential converts. Such tactics were reported by the organization's opponents to include bullying and badgering, applying pressure to the vulnerable, and occasionally, physical assault. (Such practices have not been evident or reported in relation to the movement in the United States.) However, disturbed by Nichiren Shoshu's success, ninety-six Japanese religious bodies united in 1965 to fight it as a political entity. During the 1970s, its political influence waned considerably, though it remains a powerful force.

In 1979 Soka Gakkai International was briefly affected by a scandal which erupted when some members accused Ikeda of personal misconduct. When tried, those who had brought the accusations were found guilty of libel. Meanwhile, the organization lost the support of some members and a few Nichiren Shoshu priests resigned. The organization, however, quickly recovered.

Sources:

Ikeda, Daisaku. Guidance Memo. Tokyo: Seikyo Press, 1966.

Kirimura, Tasiji. Fundamentals of Buddhism. Tokyo: Nichiren Shoshu Center, 1977.

The Liturgy of Nichiren Shoshu. Etiwanda, CA: Nichiren Shoshu Temple, 1979.

Soka Gakkai. Tokyo: Soka Gakkai, 1983.

Williams, George M. Freedom and Influence. Santa Monica, CA: World Tribune Press, 1985.

2394

Palolo Kwannon Temple (Tendai Sect)

3326 Paalea St.
Honolulu, HI 96816

The Palolo Kwannon Temple in Honolulu is a small center of worship for Kwannon, the Japanese equivalent of Kwan Yin, the goddess of mercy. The temple was founded in 1935 as an outpost of a large Kwannon temple in southern Japan. Kwannon is thought of in much the same way that Amida is thought of in Shin Buddhism, that is, as a bodhisattva, one who appears spiritually to people to enlighten them. A statue of Juzo Busatsu, another popular bodhisattva and patron of fishermen, had been placed on the southern shore of Oahu. It was cast into the sea and broken during World War II. After the war, the statue was found and repaired, and it now rests in the dooryard of the temple.

Membership: Not reported.

2395

Reiyukai America

15721 S. Western Ave.
Gardenia, CA 90247

Alternate Address: International Headquarters: 1-7-8 Azabudai, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan; Reiyukai Canada Office, 8833 Selkirk Ave. Vancouver, BC V6P 4I6.

Reiyukai derives from the attempts of Kakutaro Kubo (1892-1944), a young Buddhist layman, to find an alternative to what he perceived as the dead, formal Buddhism of the 1920s in Japan. Born near the birthplace of Buddhist prophet-reformer Nichiren (1222-1282), Kubo developed an early interest in the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren had taught his followers to emphasize the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, one of a number of Buddhist texts. Moving to Tokyo at a still-youthful age, he was adopted by a childless family who encouraged his spiritual explorations. Kubo's study of the sutra led him to reject the Buddhism he saw practiced in the local temples and to emphasize the need to incorporate the practices and principles of the Lotus Sutra into daily life.

Following an admonition in the Lotus Sutra, he began to urge others to accept, read, recite, expound, and copy the Lotus Sutra. Following the teachings of an earlier Nichiren reformer, Mugaku Nishida (1850-1918), he advocated the lay practice of Buddhism over control of Buddhist life to the priesthood, and followers were taught to practice in their home rather than at the temples.

In 1928, Kubo composed the Blue Sutra, bringing together materials mainly from the Threefold Lotus Sutra. Members were encouraged to recite the Blue Sutra daily in the morning and in the evening (approximately 30 minutes).

The first Reiyukai group, following Kubo's teachings, was formed in 1924 in Tokyo. A second Tokyo group formed in the mid-1920s, and yet another group formed in Fukushima City. The early years were plagued with schisms. The Fukushima group withdrew in 1930, and the leader of the original Tokyo group disagreed with Kubo's emphasis upon intense propagation of the Lotus Sutra.

In 1930, the remaining Reiyukai group formally installed officers and chose Baron Taketoshi Nagayama, a Japanese nobleman, as its president. Nagayama's presence in such a prominent position helped Reiyukai gain the social credibility and probably kept Reiyukai from some of the government persecution experienced by similar groups during World War II. Kubo was named chairman of the board, and Kimi Kotani (1901-1971), the sister-in-law of an original member and later Kubo's successor as the head of Reiyukai, was named honorary president. The work grew tremendously during the war, and by 1950 there were more than one million members. Kotani inaugurated the Youth Group Society in 1954. In 1964, she established Mirokusan, a center in Shizuoka Prefecture, dedicated to the practice of the teachings of Buddha and the realization of world peace.

Kotani was eventually succeeded by Dr. Tsugunari Kubo (b.1936), Kubo's son and present head of the organization. Under his leadership, the organization began to expand abroad to Europe and America. He also inaugurated a political research center to provide information about political affairs to Reiyukai members. While Reiyukai has not entered directly into partisan politics, unlike the Soka Gakkai, another Nichiren-inspired lay-Buddhist group, it does encourage members to participate and to promote democratic ideals.

Reiyukai came to America in the 1970s and established headquarters in Los Angeles, California. While work was initially concentrated among Japanese-Americans, the practice has begun to attract the English-speaking public. To promote communication and understanding among young people, an international Youth Speech Festival, with national phases in each country, has been conducted each year. National contestants have been brought to Los Angeles, with the national winners traveling abroad to participate in special international festivals. In addition to Japan and the United States, Reiyukai can be found in Brazil, Canada, France, Great Britain, India, Italy, Korea, Mexico, Nepal, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Spain, Taiwan, and Thailand.

Beliefs. Reiyukai's teaching brings direct exposure to Buddhist practice and philosophy, through which one gains a personal understanding of how it can be applied to improve oneself and one's relationship with others. Reiyukai's fundamental concept is that people can open their own path to self development through the understanding and application of the basic Buddhist idea of the interconnection and interdependence of all things. Reiyukai's practice, which includes daily recitation of the Blue Sutra (English Meditation Text), can create awareness and appreciation of the vertical line of "past-time" interconnection extending from one's ancestors through one's parents to oneself. It can also create awareness and appreciation of the horizontal line of "current-time" interconnection extending throughout all of one's daily-life relationships. The culmination of practice is the sincere motivation to demonstrate to others, through one's own personal attitude, action, and example, effective ways of living together in harmony.

The organization's Internet site is at http://www.reiyukaiamerica.org.

Membership: Not reported.

Periodicals: Inner Quest.

Sources:

The Development of Japanese Lay Buddhism. Tokyo: Reiyukai, 1986.

Offner, Clark B., and Henry Van Straelen. Modern Japanese Religions. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1963.

Reiyukai: Awareness, Action and Development. Tokyo: Reiyukai, 1997.

Thomsen, Harry. The New Religions of Japan. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1963.

2396

Rissho Kosei Kai

118 N. Mott
Los Angeles, CA 90033

Rissho Kosei Kai (the Society for the Establishment of Righteous and Friendly Intercourse) is one of the new Nichiren bodies that arose as World War II was beginning. The movement was founded by Nikkyo Niwano, a farmer's son, and Naganuma Myoko. Niwano (b. 1906), a self-taught man, was a member of Reiyukai, a Nichiren sect formed in 1922. Naganuma (1899-1957) was the wife of an iceman in Tokyo, and for many years suffered from a serious disease. On Niwano's advice, she joined Reiyukai and was healed. Together they left the organization and, in 1938, began Rissho Kosei Kai. The motivation seemed to be Niwano's desire for independence as well as a greater leadership role.

Rissho Kosei Kai follows Nichiren's interpretation of Buddhism. Attention is focused on the three Hokke Sutras (the Muryogi Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, and the Kanfugen Sutra). The Daimoku, the repetition of the mantra "Namu myoho renge kyo," is used. Unlike Nichiren Shoshu, Rissho Kosei Kai does not use the Daimoku for its power. It is an expression of gratitude and faith. Man is bound by the laws of reincarnation and cause and effect. The consequences of these laws can only be broken by repentance and perfect living. The goal of Rissho Kosei Kai is the attainment of perfect Buddhahood through faith and repentance.

Dharma worship takes place in instruction halls. It includes chanting of the Lotus Sutra and the Daimoku and a sermon. After the service, hoza, or group counseling, begins. The congregation divides into small groups for discussions of personal problems and of the deeper aspects of faith. Divinatory practices are often incorporated. There are three annual festivals: the Foundation Festival on March 5; the Flower Festival on Buddha's birthday, April 8; and the Grand Festival on October 13.

While Rissho Kosei Kai has grown strong in Japan, it has penetrated the United States slowly. It began in 1959 when Tomoko Ozaki opened her home in Kealakekua, Kona, Hawaii, for a gathering of members who had migrated from Japan. The occasion was the visit of Rev. Kazue Yukawe. During the 1960s the movement spread to Honolulu and then to California and Chicago. The group consists mainly of Japanese-Americans. Members are also located in Korea, Hong Kong, Thailand, and Brazil.

Membership: In 1984, the Rissho Kosei-Kai reported 10 centers, serving 1,200 families in the United States. There were four priests. It reported over 5,000,000 members worldwide.

Periodicals: Dharma World. Available from Kosei Publishing Co., 2-7-1 Wada, Suginami, Tokyo 166, Japan.

Sources:

Niwano, Nichiko. My Father, My Teacher. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co., 1982.

Niwano, Nikkyo. Lifetime Beginner. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co., 1978.

Rissho Kosei-Kai. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Co., 1966.

2397

Shingon Mission

915 Sheridan St.
Honolulu, HI 96810

Shingon Buddhism is a Japanese esoteric right-hand tantric sect. It places great emphasis on ritual, imagery, and ceremony, as well as occultism. The central practice is the use of mantras as magical formulas. "Mantra" means "true word," and its use emphasizes the need for the correct formula to accomplish the end. The incorporation of popular magical practices is one secret of Shingon's success. The man who integrated the elements that became Shingon was a monk named Ku Kai or, as he is most popularly known, Kobo Daishi. A student of Chinese religion, he was initiated by the Chinese into esoteric studies. He returned to Japan and began Shingon in 808 C.E. In 816, he received a grant of land upon which to construct a monastery. The site was Koyasan, a mountain near Osaka, upon which a collection of temples and monasteries were built. It remains the international Shingon headquarters.

Shingon's right-hand tantrism specializes in the worship of masculine gods. The pantheon shows numerous Hindu deities. A central solar divinity is Vairochana, from whom emanates the world. Vairochana is represented by graphic forms—the mandala, a cosmological form which artistically represents the essence of the universe. Art is an important facet of Shingon; Ku Kai believed that only art could convey the inner meaning of the Buddha's teaching. Also to be seen on the mandalas are the Buddhas and bodhisattvas who personify the Godhead. They include Amida, Shakyamuni (Gautama Buddha), and Kannon (Kwan Yin). Practices of the Shingon include meditation (often with the mantra), mudras (symbolic gestures), postures, and handling of ritual instruments.

Shingon was brought to the United States in 1902 by Hogen Yujiri, an immigrant laborer who opened a preaching hall in Hawaii on the island of Maui. He claimed to have been cured of an eye ailment by the "limitless compassion of Kobo Daishi." In 1903, Kodo Yamamoto gathered a Shingon following and built on Kauai the "Eighty-eight Holy Places of Hawaii's Garden Isle," modeled on a Japanese shrine. Before the decade was out, temples had been founded in Honolulu and on the Big Island (Hawaii). The movement spread quickly through the plantations.

In 1914, Eikaku Seki came to Honolulu as an official representative from Koyasan. He considered deplorable the chaotic condition of the popularized manifestation of his faith. He set up headquarters and built a detached temple of the Kongobuji, the main temple on Koyasan. Shingon continued to grow and gradually came under Seki's control.

Shingon reached its peak in the years prior to World War II. Since then, it has declined. It had only thirteen temples in 1972, half of the number reported in 1926. Headquarters are in Honolulu where Bishop Tetsuei Katoda oversees twelve ministers.

Membership: Not reported. Beside the dozen temples in Hawaii, there is also a Shingon temple in Los Angeles, California.

Sources:

Light of Buddha. Los Angeles: Koyasan Buddhist Temple, 1968.

2398

Shinnyo-En

2220 Summit Dr.
Burlingame, CA 94010

Headquartered in Japan, Shinnyo-en is a lay Buddhist order founded in 1936 by Shinjo Ito (1906-1989) along with his wife Tomoji Ito (1912-1967). Shinjo Ito mastered the traditional esoteric teachings of Shingon Buddhism at Daigoji Temple in Japan, where he became a successor to the Buddhist Dharma stream. There he was bestowed with the rank of Great Acharya ("Great Master"). As an ordained priest, he continued his studies in traditional Buddhism with the wish to make salvation available to a wide scope of people. Toward that end, he adopted the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (Buddha Shakyamuni's last teaching) as the main scripture of Shinnyoen. In addition, he and his wife perfected a meditation training known as sesshin to help trainees understand the teachings of the Buddha and apply them in their immediate surroundings (family, workplace, school, and community). Followers are encouraged to become well-rounded members of society who can show the spirit of Buddhism through their own examples. It is believed that active involvement in society helps one to understand the theoretical principles of Buddhism and to recognize the inherent beauty and order of all things.

During the 1960s, Shinjo and Tomoji Ito made several trips to foster religious exchange and goodwill. In 1966 they traveled to Thailand to attend the eighth international conference of the World Fellowship of major religions. Included in this trip was an audience with Pope Paul VI at the Vatican. As a result of these travels, congregations developed in various parts of Asia (Taiwan, Hong King, Singapore, Thailand, and Sri Lanka), Australia, and Europe (France, Italy, Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany).

Sinjo Ito first came to the United States in 1970; the first Shinnyen temple was established in Hawaii in 1973. Since then, other congregations have been founded in San Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, White Plains (New York), and Chicago. Shinnyo-en USA administers the temples in the continental United States and has its head temple in Burlingame, California.

After Sinhjo Ito's death, his daughter formally succeeded him as the new head of Shinnyo-en.

Membership: In 2001, Shinnyo-en reported 796,477 members worldwide. Congregations can also be found in France, Belgium, Germany, Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, and Australia.

Educational Facilities: ITO Foundation. The Universe Foundation.
Shinnyo-En Foundation.

Periodicals: Nirvana (English). • Nagai Jiho (Japanese). • Kangi Sekai (Japanese).

Sources:

Ito Shinjo. Tomoshibi Nen Nen: Buddha's Light Everlasting. Tokyo: Shin-nyo-En, 1976.

Nagai, Michiko. "Magic and Self-Cultivation in a New Religion: The Case of Shinnyoen." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 22, 3-4 (1995):301-321.

Sakashita, Jay. Shinnyoen and the Transmission of Japanese New Religions Abroad. Stirling (Scotland): University of Stirling, Ph.D., 1998.

The Way to Nirvana. Tokyo: Shinnyo-En, 1977.

2399

Shinshu Kyokai Mission

Bentenshu Hawaii Kyokai
3871 Old Pali Rd.
Honolulu, HI 86817

The Shinshu Kyokai Mission is a Shinshu congregation in Honolulu which is independent of both the Honpa Hongwanji and the Higashi Hongwanji. As a congregational project, the group maintains a dormitory for students and working men.

Membership: In 1982 there were 800 members in one center.

2400

Soka Gakkai International–USA (SGI-USA)

606 Wilshire Blvd.
Santa Monica, CA 90401-1427

Alternate Address: Sokki Gakkai International, 15-3 Samoncho, Shinjuku-ku Tokyo 160-0017, Japan.

Soka Gakkai International–USA (SGI-USA) is an American Buddhist organization that responds to the need for individual happiness/individual empowerment and the values of peace, culture, and education. Its exclusively lay membership adheres to the teachings of the Nichiren school of Mahayana Buddhism. The name "Soka Gakkai" literally means "society for the creation of value."

The philosophical origins of SGI-USA can be traced to the teachings of the historical Buddha known as Shakyamuni, who lived some 2,500 years ago in what is modern-day Nepal. Born Gautama Siddhartha, he renounced his royal birthright and set out in search of a solution to the suffering related to the inescapable experiences of birth, aging, sickness, and death. He spend the last years of his life engaging followers in dialogue and teaching his disciples to continue his work. After his death, Buddhism spread throughout southern and eastern Asia, and, from the nineteenth century onward, to other continents.

SGI-USA believes that Shakyamuni's teachings culminate in the inference to a universal law (Sanskrit: Dharma), described in the Lotus Sutra, and in his enlightenment as a human being. The thirteenth-century Buddhist teacher Nichiren Daishonin declared that this universal law is expressed in the phrase Nam-myohorenge-kyo and underlies the interdependent workings of all life. According, Nichiren's teachings affirm respect for all life and the potential to achieve happiness and global peace and prosperity. He first inscribed the object of devotion known as the Gohonzon to depict enlightenment within the context of all human conditions of life.

The Buddhist practice of SGI-USA members involves chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo and reciting portions of the Lotus Sutra before the Gohonzon. Typically the Gohonzon is enshrined in a home altar.

Tsunesaburo Makiguchi (1871-1944) used the term "Soka" to encapsulate his theory of value creation and first applied it to his thoughts on education. The 1930 publication of his work, The System of Value Creating Pedagogy marks the founding of the Soka Gakkai society as an educators' colloquium interested primarily in educational reform and secondly in the application of Buddhist principles to educational theory. Into the 1930s, it attracted more members with a primary interest in the religious practice of Nichiren Buddhism and its significance to their lives and the society in which they lived. The organizations' religious beliefs were at odds with State Shinto, the national religion of Japan from 1868 to 1945 used by the militarist government during World War II to rally the nation behind its war efforts and aggression against other Asian countries. For his opposition to wartime policies Makiguchi was sent to prison, where he died. Among others, Makiguchi's closest associate, Josei Toda (1900-1958), was also imprisoned. After Toda's release near the end of the war, he set about rebuilding the Soka Gakkai, determined to increase the household membership to 750,000 from its 1945 base of 3,000 households. He accomplished this goal before his death in 1958.

The Buddhist practice of the Soka Gakkai was brought to the United States by Japanese war brides who had married American military personnel during the Occupation. The American chapter was formally established during a visit by the third Soka Gakkai president Daisaku Ikeda in 1960. The Soka Gakkai in the United States developed a diverse following under the name Nichiren Shoshu Soka Gakkai of America (NSA). In 1975, the Soka Gakkai International (SGI) association was formed, naming Ikeda as its president.

Simmering tensions between the SGI association and the Nichiren Shoshu clergy—dating back to the Soka Gakkai's opposition and Nichiren Shoshu's capitulation to State Shnito during World War II—erupted into public controversy in 1990. The SGI membership charged that Nichiren Shoshu exerted unreasonable control over its range of activities. In November 1991, Nichiren Shoshu ultimately responded by "excommunicating" the SGI. NSA changed its organizational name to Soka Gakkai International–USA, effectively severing all ties with Nichiren Shoshu.

The central activity of SGI-USA is the neighborhood discussion meeting. At these informal gatherings, usually held in members' homes, members pray together, share their experiences in faith, and study and discuss ways Buddhism can best apply to the everyday challenges of life. The organization also sponsors youth activities, educational seminars, cultural events, and exhibits that invite dialogue on common concerns such as human security, children's rights, the environment, and nuclear disarmament. These include "Victory Over Violence," a youth-driven campaign to raise community awareness of the kinds of violence, their potential causes and solutions; participation in inter-religious dialogues and conferences; "Treasuring the Future: Children's Rights and Realities," a traveling exhibit; conferences in support of the Earth Charter Initiative; and an educational project that collected and shipped more than 14,000 books to schools and colleges in Ghana.

Affiliated institutions include the Boston Research Center for the 21st Century, Toda Institute for Global Peace and Policy Research, Soka University of America, Soka University of Japan, Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Tokyo Fuji Art Museum, and Minon Concert Association.

SGA-USA's Internet site is at http://www.sgi-usa.org.

Membership: In 2002 SGI-USA reported 350,000 members with 70 centers in the United States. The organization is part of the Soka Gakkai International whose membership is more than twelve million in 180 countries and territories.

Educational Facilities: Soka Gakkai University, Calabasas, California.

Periodicals: World Tribune. • Living Buddhism.

Sources:

Eppsteiner, Robert. The Soka Gakkai International: Religious Roots, Early History, and Contemporary Development. Cambridge, MA: Soka Gakkai International—USA, 1997.

Hamond, Philip, and David Machacek. Soka Gakkai in America: Accommodation and Conversion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Ikeda, Daisaku. Guidance Memo. Tokyo: Seikyo Press, 1966.

Machacek, David, and Bryan Wilson, eds. Global citizens: The Soka Gakkai Buddhist Movement in the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press,2000.

Rawlinson, Andrew. The Book of Enlightened Masters: Western Teachers in Asian Traditions. Chicago: Open Court, 1997.

Voices of Protest: Priests Speak Out for the Reformation of Nichiren Shoshu. Tokyo: Soka Gakkai International, 1993. 204 pp.

Williams, George M. Freedom and Influence. Santa Monica, CA: World Tribune Press, 1985.

Wilson, Brian, and Karel Dobbelaere. A Time to Chant: The Soka Gakkai Buddhists in Britian. Chicago: Open Court, 1997.

2401

Todaiji Hawaii Bekkaku Honzan

2426 Luakini St.
Honolulu, HI 96814

The Kegon sect was introduced into Japan from China in the eighth century and was one of the so-called Nara sects. Its basic text was the Avatamsakasutra. The sutra tells of the visit of Sudhana to some Buddhist worthies in order to realize the principle of dharmadhatu, the realization of the domain of Buddha's law. Basic is the idea of mutual interdependence and causation of all that exists. Symbolic of this interdependence is a figure known as Indra's Net, a huge net which bears a jewel at each point of intersection. Each jewel is seen to bear the image of all the others.

Nature is seen to exist in a set of polarities-universality/ specialization, integration/differentiation, and similarity/diversity. Kegon is a traditional form of Buddhism. Ancestor worship is of prime importance and is coupled with the offering of food and drink in a gesture of belief in the non-dying of spiritual being. The mutual interaction of this life and the next is a strongly held belief.

There is only one Kegon center in the United States—the Todaiji Hawaii Bekkaku Honzan. The Todaiji was organized in Honolulu by Bishop Tatsusho Hirai, who claims to be the only female Buddhist bishop in the world. After an unsuccessful marriage to a second generation Japanese immigrant to Hawaii, she returned to Japan and entered the Todaiji Temple as a nun. After years of study, she returned to Hawaii as a missionary and, after the war, organized the Branch Temple (officially recognized in 1948). Construction of the present temple began in 1950 and was finished in 1958.

Bishop Hirai has faced opposition from the Buddhist clergy, who claim that she is incapable of expounding Kegon teaching.

Nevertheless, she has persisted, aided by her adopted daughter, Kaeko Hirai, whom she trained and ordained.

Membership: In 1982 the center in Hawaii reported 30,000 adherents (i.e., the number who had received either a healing blessing and/or special amulet from the center).

Sources:

Hirai, Tatsusho. Todaiji of Hawaii. Honolulu: Todaiji Hawaii Bekkaku Honzan, n.d.

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