Devil

A name derived from the Greek diabolos, meaning "slanderer." The name is used for the supreme spirit of evil, the enemy of God and man, also known as Satan (or "adversary") in Mat. 4:8-11 and Rev. 12:9.

The idea of Satan was most fully developed in postapostolic Christianity, but as the personification of evil, Satan has many precursors and analogous representations in other religions. Possibly the clearest precursor was Set (or Seth), the antagonist of the Egyptian god of light, Horus. Set was the deity of the desert; Horus, of the life-giving Nile. Set's color was red, and redhaired and ruddy-complected people were on occasion sacrificed because they were identified with him.

In early polygamous religious systems, the gods were pictured in quite human terms, possessing both admirable and detestable attributes at the same time. Very few of them were seen as evil like the devils in Christianity or Islam. In Egypt and Babylon, figures like Apepi and Tiawath, although clearly in the line of evolution toward a satanic personality, were by no means rulers of the infernal regions. Again, the Hades of the Greeks is merely a ruler of the ghosts of the dead, not an enemy of Olympus or of mankind.

It is strange that in Mexico, Mictlantecutli, lord of hell, is a much more directly satanic figure than any European or Asiatic ruler of the realms of the dead. But in some mythologies, there are frequent allusions to monsters that may quite easily have colored the modern concept of Satan. Such is the Hindu serpent Ahi, the Hebrew Leviathan, and the principle of Chaos. Teutonic mythology has the menacing Loki, originally a god of fire, but afterward the personification of evil.

The concept of Satan, too, appears to have some deeply rooted connection with ancient serpent worship, which seems to have penetrated most Oriental countries. Thus we find the Tempter in the Old Testament (Gen. 3) in the guise of a serpent. The serpent or dragon is generally regarded as the personification of night, who swallows the sun and envelops the world in darkness.

It is generally thought that the Hebrew concept of Satan really developed in the postexilic period, though Satan is a major character in the Book of Job, one of the earliest Hebrew writings, and exhibits traces of Babylonian or Assyrian influence. It is unlikely that before the captivity any specific doctrine respecting evil spirits was held by the Hebrews. Writing on this subject, F. T. Hall in his book The Pedigree of the Devil (1883) states:

"The term 'Satan' and 'Satans' which occur in the Old Testament, are certainly not applicable to the modern conception of Satan as a spirit of evil; although it is not difficult to detect in the Old Hebrew mind a fruitful soil, in which the idea, afterwards evolved, would readily take root. The original idea of a 'Satan' is that of an 'adversary,' or agent of 'opposition.' The angel which is said to have withstood Balaam is in the same breath spoken of as 'The angel of the Lord,' and a 'Satan.' When the Philistines under Achish their king were about to commence hostilities against the Israelites under Saul and David and his men were about to march with the Philistines; the latter objected, lest, in the day of battle, David should become a 'Satan' to them, by deserting to the enemy. When David, in later life, was returning to Jerusalem, after Absalom's rebellion and death; and his lately disaffected subjects were, in turn, making their submission; amongst them came the truculent Shimei; Abishai, David's nephew, one of the fierce sons of Zeruiah, advised that Shimei should be put to death: this grated upon David's feelings, at a time when he was filled with exuberant joy at his own restoration; and he rebuked Abishai as a 'Satan.' Again Satan is said to have provoked David to number Israel, and at the same time, that 'the Lord moved David to number Israel;' a course strenuously opposed by Joab, another of the sons of Zeruiah. Solomon in his message to Hiram, king of Tyre, congratulated himself on having no 'Satans' and that this peaceful immunity from discord enabled him to build the Temple, which had been forbidden to his warlike father, David. This immunity was not, however, lasting; for Hadad, the Edomite, and Regon, of Zobah, became 'Satans' to Solomon, after his profuse luxury had opened the way for corruption and disaffection. In all these cases, the idea is simply identical with the plain meaning of the word: a Satan is an opponent, an adversary. In the elaborate curse embodied in the 109th Psalm, the writer speaks of his enemies as his 'Satans' and prays that the object of his anathema may have 'Satan' standing at his right hand. The Psalmist himself, in the sequel, fairly assumes the office of his enemy's 'Satan,' by enumerating his crimes and failings, and exposing them in their worst light. In the 71st Psalm, enemies (v. 10) are identified with 'Satans' or adversaries (v. 13).

"The only other places in the Old Testament where the word occurs, are in the Book of Job, and the prophecy of Zechariah. In the Book of Job, Satan appears with a distinct personality, and is associated with the sons of God, and in attendance with them before the throne of Jehovah. He is the cynical critic of Job's actions, and in that character he accuses him of insincerity and instability; and receives permission from Jehovah to test the justice of this accusation, by afflicting Job in everything he holds dear. We have here the spy, the informer, the public prosecutor, the executioner; all embodied in Satan, the adversary: these attributes are not amiable ones, but the writer does not suggest the absolute antagonism between Jehovah and Satan, which is a fundamental dogma of modern Christianity."

In later Judaism the concept of Satan is strongly colored by Persian dualism, and it has been supposed that Asmodeus of the Book of Tobit is the same as Aeshara Daewa of the ancient Persians. Both "Satan" and "Satans" are mentioned in the Book of Enoch; in Ecclesiasticus, Satan is identified with the serpent of Genesis; and in the Book of the Secrets of Enoch his revolt against God and expulsion from heaven are described. In the Jewish Targinn, Samael, highest of the angels, merges with Satan into a single personality.

Satan in the Christian New Testament clearly builds on these later Jewish forms. In Matthew he is alluded to as the "Prince of Demons," and in Ephesians he is spoken of as ruling over a world of evil beings who dwell in the lower heavens. Thus he is prince of the powers of the air. In Revelation the war in heaven between God and Satan is described, and Satan's imprisonment is foreshadowed after the overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth; he will be chained in the bottomless pit for 1,000 years (Rev. 20). After another period of freedom he will be cast into the lake of brimstone forever.

The orthodox doctrine of Satan developed over a number of centuries. Satan as an independent topic of theological inquiry was not prominent. Christ was seen as gaining the victory over Satan and his kingdom, and only in the early Middle Ages did theologians turn their attention to a consideration of Satan's continuing influence in the world. Over the centuries a complete picture of Satan and his cohorts would grow, and with his emergence would come a new appreciation of the devil's continued active opposition to the church.

A major step in the definition of Satan occurred in the late fifteenth century with the new definition of witchcraft — previously understood as a surviving remnant of paganism—as Satanism, (i.e., devil worship ). During the three centuries of the great witch-hunts, the devil was assigned a new and significant role as the supernatural cause of evil in the mundane world. That belief was not disturbed by the Reformation of the sixteenth century, and the Protestants shared Roman Catholic ideas about the devil and his demonic assistants. These beliefs were assailed in seventeenth-and eighteenth-century critiques of the anti-witchcraft crusades and in the post-Enlightenment theologies of the nineteenth century. Supernatural explanations of evil gave way to more natural interpretations.

Modern Belief in Satan

Of course, belief in the existence and power of Satan never disappeared, and in the 1960s various forces converged to produce a revival of belief in the devil. In the 1960s conservative Protestantism, which had been pushed out of the power centers of the major denominations in the 1930s, experienced a resurgence. At the same time, Western culture was undergoing a quantum leap in religious pluralism. New religions appeared in significant numbers, among them a new nature-oriented religion that took the name witchcraft.

In 1966 Anton LaVey announced the formation of the Church of Satan. Though he preached a very sanitized and secularized form of Satanism, and he never had more than a few thousand followers, the very existence of public Satanists provided a prominent symbol used by conservative Christians to argue for the existence of supernatural evil.

The 1970s became a decade of popular attention to issues of supernatural evil and the work of the devil. Several movies, including Rosemary's Baby (1968), The Exorcist (1973), and The Omen (1976) helped define an era in which public discourse on Satan and Satanism reached a new peak, and numerous books on Satan, demonic possession, exorcism, and devil worship were published. The fashionable interest in Satan faded, only to breed a pop-culture interest in demonic creatures such as vampire s, werewolves, witches, poltergeist s, and gremlins. Interest in supernatural forces and beings lasted throughout the remainder of the twentieth century, but during the 1990s angels and positive light forces were vogue in western culture. The devil continues to hold the modern imagination, however, and belief in the existence of Satan continues in the general public. In reality, exorcism is still practiced in both conservative Roman Catholic circles and Pentecostal Protestant churches.

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