Rāmānuja (11th/12th cent.). Hindu philosopher, theologian, and source of the school known as Viśiṣṭādvaita-vedānta. He was a Śrivaiṣṇavite, who sought to give the devotional attitude implicit in that allegiance a more reflective and philosophical foundation. He accepted three means of knowledge: pratykṣa (perception), anumāna (inference), and śabda or śāstra (verbal testimony). He accepted the basic texts of Vedanta philosophy (the Upaniṣads, the Brahmasūtra, and the Bhagavad-gītā), but he also allowed the authority of the hymns of the Āḻvārs, the Pāñcarātra-Āgamas, and the Viṣṇu- and Bhāgavata-purāṇas.

The major works attributed to him are Śrībhāsyam, Vedāntadīpah, and Vedāntas̄arah (all commentaries on the Vedanta Sūtras), a commentary on the Gīta, Vedārthasamgraḥah (an exposition of his viewpoint), Śaraṇāgatigadyam (on self-surrender to God), Śrīrangagadyam (on the devotions and praise evoked by the Śrīrangam temple and its presiding deity), Vaikuṇṭhagadyam (on the nature of the liberated state), and Nithyagranthah (on worship).

Rāmānuja agreed with Śaṅkara that Brahman is that which truly is, without distinction (advaita), but did not agree that there is nothing else that is real, and that all else is māyā (appearance), the projection of avidyā (ignorance). He held that individual selves and the world of matter (described in terms derived from Sāṃkhya) are real, but that they are always dependent on Brahman for their existence and functions—hence his view is known as qualified non-duality, viśiṣtādvaita. Selves and matter are the instruments of Brahman in a relationship like that of souls and bodies (śarīra-śarīrī-bhāva). Although God is beyond description, nevertheless much can be inferred and attributed analogously to God from his manifestations in the world as avatāra (incarnation). He is thus the source of grace (anugraha), seeking the salvation of those who turn to him, in a general way through revelation (Veda), and in particular to his devotees.