Australia

Compiled from the December 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Commonwealth of Australia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 7.7 million sq. km. (3 million sq. mi.); about the size of the 48 contiguous United States.

Cities: (2006) Capital—Canberra (pop. 323,000). Other cities—Sydney (4.3 million), Melbourne (3.6 million), Brisbane (1.8 million), Perth (1.5 million), Adelaide (1.1 million), Darwin (114,000), Hobart (48,808).

Terrain: Varied, but generally lowlying.

Climate: Relatively dry and subject to drought, ranging from temperate in the south to tropical in the far north.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Australian(s).

Population: (2007 est.) 21 million.

Annual population growth rate: 1.3%.

Ethnic groups: European 92%, Asian 6%, Aboriginal 2%.

Religions: (2006) Catholic 26%, Anglican 19%, other Christian 19%, other non-Christian 5%, no religion 19% and not stated 12%.

Languages: English.

Education: Years compulsory—to age 15 in all states except Tasmania, where it is 16. Literacy—over 99%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—4.63/ 1,000. Life expectancy—males 78 yrs., females 83 yrs.

Work force: (10.4 million) Agriculture—3.0%; mining—4.9%; manufacturing—10.3%; services—72.4%; public administration and defense-3.8%.

Government

Type: Democratic, federal-state system recognizing British monarch as sovereign.

Constitution: Passed by the British Parliament on July 9, 1900. Independence (federation) January 1, 1901.

Government branches: Head of state is the British monarch, who is also the Australian sovereign, represented by an appointed governor general. Legislative—bicameral Parliament (76-member Senate, 150-member House of Representatives). The House of Representatives selects as head of government the Prime Minister, who then appoints his cabinet. Judicial—independent judiciary.

Political subdivisions: Six states and two territories.

Political parties: Australian Labor, Liberal, the Greens, the Nationals, and Family First. The Australian Labor Party currently forms the government.

Suffrage: Universal and compulsory over 18.

Budget: (revenue) FY 2007-2008 $219.4 billion; FY 2008-2009 $231.8 billion (2006 US$/$A = 1.32).

Defense: $19.9 billion or 1.81% of GDP for FY 2007-2008. (2006 US$/ $A = 1.32).

Economy

GDP: (year to March 2007) $714.1 billion.

Inflation rate: (year to September 2007) 3.2% per annum.

Reserve Bank official interest rate: 6.50%.

Trade: Exports ($114 billion, 2005-2006)—coal, iron ore, non-monetary gold, crude petroleum, and bovine meat. Major markets—China, Japan, South Korea, U.S. ($7.3 billion), and New Zealand. Imports ($125 billion, 2005-2006)—passenger motor vehicles, crude petroleum, computers, medicaments, and telecommunications equipment. Major suppliers—China, U.S. ($17.1 billion), Japan, Singapore, and Germany.

PEOPLE

Australia's aboriginal inhabitants, a hunting-gathering people generally referred to today as Aboriginals and Torres Straits Islanders, arrived more than 40,000 years ago. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons—their spiritual and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and confederacies sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Aboriginal population density ranged from one person per square mile along the coasts to one person per 35 square miles in the arid interior. When Capt. James Cook claimed Australia for Great Britain in 1770, the native population may have numbered 300,000 in as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages. The aboriginal population currently numbers approximately 517,200, representing about 2.5% of the population. Since the end of World War II, the government and the public have made efforts to be more responsive to aboriginal rights and needs.

Immigration has been a key to Australia's development since the beginning of European settlement in 1788. For generations, most settlers came from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still predominantly of British or Irish origin, with a culture and outlook similar to those of Americans. However, since the end of World War II, the population has more than doubled; non-European immigration, mostly from the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America, has increased significantly since 1960 through an extensive, planned immigration program. From 1945 through 2000, nearly 5.9 million immigrants settled in Australia, and about 80% have remained; nearly three out of every 10 Australians are foreign-born. Britain, Ireland, Italy, Greece, New Zealand, and the former Yugoslavia were the largest sources of post-war immigration, but New Zealand has now overtaken Britain as the largest source country for permanent migrants to Australia, with India, China, and the Philippines making up the rest of the top five.

Australia's humanitarian and refugee admissions of about 13,000 per year are in addition to the normal immigration program. In recent years, refugees from Africa, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia have comprised the largest element in Australia's refugee program. Although Australia has scarcely more than three people per square kilometer, it is one of the world's most urbanized countries. Less than 2.5% of the population lives in remote or very remote areas.

Cultural Achievements

Much of Australia's culture is derived from European roots, but distinctive Australian features have evolved from the environment, aboriginal culture, and the influence of Australia's neighbors. The vigor and originality of the arts in Australia—film, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition.

Australian actors such as Nicole Kidman, Rachel Griffiths, Cate Blanchett, Geoffrey Rush, Paul Hogan, Hugh Jackman, and Heath Ledger have achieved enormous popularity in the United States. Australian movies and directors such as Peter Weir and Philip Noyes, the conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, and singers such as Olivia Newton-John, children's musicians The Wiggles, AC/DC, Dame Joan Sutherland, Dame Nellie Melba, and Kylie Minogue, also are well known.

Australia has had a widely respected school of painting since the early days of European settlement, and Australians with international reputations include Sidney Nolan, Russell Drysdale, Pro Hart, and Arthur Boyd. Writers who have achieved world recognition include Thomas Keneally, Colleen McCullough, Nevil Shute, Morris West, Jill Ker Conway, Peter Carey, Robert Hughes, Germaine Greer, and Nobel Prize winner Patrick Whit

HISTORY

Australia was uninhabited until stone-culture peoples arrived, perhaps by boat across the waters separating the island from the Indonesia archipelago more than 40,000 years ago. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English explorers observed the island before 1770, when Captain Cook explored the east coast and claimed it for Great Britain (three American colonists were crew members aboard Cook's ship, the Endeavour).

On January 26, 1788 (now celebrated as Australia Day), the First Fleet under Capt. Arthur Phillip landed at Sydney, and formal proclamation of the establishment of the Colony of New South Wales followed on February 7. Many but by no means all of the first settlers were convicts, many condemned for offenses that today would often be thought trivial. The mid-19th century saw the beginning of government policies to emancipate convicts and assist the immigration of free persons. The discovery of gold in 1851 led to increased population, wealth, and trade.

The six colonies that now constitute the states of the Australian Commonwealth were established in the following order: New South Wales, 1788; Tasmania, 1825; Western Australia, 1830; South Australia, 1836; Victoria, 1851; and Queensland, 1859. Settlement had preceded these dates in most cases. Discussions between Australian and British representatives led to adoption by the British Government of an act to constitute the Commonwealth of Australia in 1900. Since Federation, the Commonwealth Government has established two self-governing territories: the Northern Territory, 1978; and the Australian Capital Territory (where the national capital, Canberra, is located), 1989.

The first federal Parliament was opened at Melbourne in May 1901 by the Duke of York (later King George V). In May 1927, the seat of government was transferred to Canberra, a planned city designed by an American, Walter Burley Griffin. The first session of Parliament in that city was opened by another Duke of York (later King George VI). Australia passed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act on October 9, 1942, which officially established Australia's complete autonomy in both internal and external affairs. Its passage formalized a situation that had existed for years. The Australia Act (1986) eliminated almost all remaining vestiges of British legal authority.

GOVERNMENT

The Commonwealth government was created with a Constitution patterned partly on the U.S. Constitution, although it does not include a “bill of rights”. The powers of the Commonwealth are specifically defined in the Constitution, and the residual powers remain with the states. Proposed changes to the Constitution must be approved by the Parliament and the people, via referendum, in order to take effect.

Australia is an independent nation within the Commonwealth. Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state and since 1973 has been officially styled “Queen of Australia.” The Queen is represented throughout Australia by a governor general and in each state by a governor. The governor general retains reserve powers of the Queen, including the power to dismiss ministers, last exercised in 1975.

The federal Parliament is bicameral, consisting of a 76-member Senate and a 150-member House of Representatives. Twelve senators from each state are elected for 6-year terms, with half elected every 3 years. Each territory has two senators who are elected for 3-year terms. The members of the House of Representatives are allocated among the states and territories roughly in proportion to population. In ordinary legislation, the two chambers have parallel powers, but all proposals for appropriating revenue or imposing taxes must be introduced in the House of Representatives. Under the prevailing Westminster parliamentary system, the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that wins a majority of the seats in the House of Representatives is named prime minister. The prime minister and the cabinet wield actual power and are responsible to the Parliament, of which they must be elected members. General elections are held at least once every 3 years; the last general election was in November 2007.

Each state is headed by a premier, who is the leader of the party with a majority or a working minority in the lower house of the state legislature (Queensland is an exception, with a unicameral parliament). Australia's two self-governing territories have political systems similar to those of the states, with unicameral assemblies. Each territory is headed by a Chief Minister who is the leader of the party with a majority or a working minority in the territory's legislature. Australia's 673 local councils assist in the delivery of services such as road maintenance, sewage treatment, and the provision of recreational facilities.

At the apex of the court system is the High Court of Australia. It has general appellate jurisdiction over all other federal and state courts and possesses the power of constitutional review.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Governor General: Philip Michael JEFFERY, Maj. Gen. (Ret.)

Prime Minister: Kevin RUDD

Dep. Prime Min.: Julia GILLARD

Min. for Aging: Justine ELLIOTT

Min. for Agriculture, Fisheries, & Forestry: Tony BURKE

Min. for Broadband, Communications, & the Digital Economy: Stephen CONROY

Min. for Climate Change & Water: Penny WONG

Min. for Competition Policy & Consumer Affairs: Chris BOWEN

Min. for Defense: Joel FITZGIBBON

Min. for Defense Science & Personnel: Warren SNOWDON

Min. for Education: Julia GILLARD

Min. for Employment & Workplace Relations: Julia GILLARD

Min. for Employment Participation: Brendan O’CONNOR

Min. for the Environment, Heritage, & the Arts: Peter GARRETT

Min. for Families, Housing, Community Services, & Indigenous Affairs: Jenny MACKLIN

Min. for Finance & Deregulation: Lindsay TANNER

Min. for Foreign Affairs: Stephen SMITH

Min. for Health & Aging: Nicola ROXON

Min. for Housing: Tanya PLIBERSEK

Min. for Human Services: Joe LUDWIG

Min. for Immigration & Citizenship: Chris EVANS

Min. for Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, & Local Govt.: Anthony ALBANESE

Min. for Innovation, Industry, Science, & Research: Kim CARR

Min. for Resources & Energy: Martin FERGUSON

Min. for Small Business, Independent Contractors, & the Service Economy: Craig EMERSON

Min. for Social Inclusion: Julia GILLARD

Min. for Sport: Kate ELLIS

Min. for the Status of Women: Tanya PLIBERSEK

Min. for Superannuation & Corporate Law: Nick SHERRY

Min. for Tourism: Martin FERGUSON

Min. for Trade: Simon CREAN

Min. for Veterans’ Affairs: AlanGRIFFIN

Min. for Youth: Kate ELLIS

Treasurer: Wayne SWAN

Special Min. of State: John FAULKNER

Attorney General: Robert McCLELLAND

Governor, Reserve Bank: GlennSTEVENS

Ambassador to the US: DennisRICHARDSON

Permanent Representative to the UN, NewYork: Robert HILL

Australia maintains an embassy in the United States at 1601 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 (tel. 202-797-3000), and consulates general in New York (212-351-6500), San Francisco (415-536-1970), Honolulu (808-524-5050), Los Angeles (310-229-4800), Chicago (312-419-1480) and Atlanta (404-760-3400).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Three political parties dominate the center of the Australian political spectrum. The Liberal Party (LP), nominally representing urban business interests, and the Nationals, nominally representing rural interests, are the more conservative parties. The Australian Labor Party (ALP) nominally represents the trade unions and left-of-center groups. The ALP, founded by labor unions, traditionally had been moderately socialist in its policies and approaches to social issues. Today, it is a best described as a social democratic party. All political groups are tied by tradition to domestic welfare policies offering extensive social welfare programs. Over the last decade, Australia's social welfare system has increased assistance to families while imposing obligations on those receiving unemployment benefits and disability pensions. There is strong bipartisan sentiment on many international issues, including Australia's commitment to its alliance with the United States.

The ALP, under the leadership of Kevin Rudd, defeated the Liberal/National coalition, led by former Prime Minister John Howard, in an election on November 24, 2007. The ALP now holds 84 seats in the House of Representatives, against 64 for the Liberal/National coalition, and 2 independents. Currently, in the Senate, the coalition holds a majority with 39 seats in the 76-seat chamber, but with the election—which was also for half the upper house—a new Senate will be seated in July 2008 in which no party will have a majority. The composition of the Senate is likely to be 37 seats for the coalition, 32 for the ALP, five seats for the Green Party, one for the Family First Party, and one independent.

Rudd and the ALP won the election with a message promising new leadership after 11 years of the Howard government. They campaigned on a conservative platform that mimicked coalition polices in key policy areas such as tax cuts and economic management, while differentiating themselves on unpopular Howard government policies on workplace relations reform and climate change. The Rudd government has ratified the Kyoto Protocol and will work with the international community on combating climate change. It will also seek to undo some of the labor market reforms instituted by the Howard government after the 2004 election. The reforms, which eliminated some worker protections in the name of labor-market flexibility, were never accepted by many working families in Australia, and they deserted Howard in the election. The new Australian government's foreign policy is likely to show strong continuity with that of its predecessors, stressing relations with four key countries: the United States, Japan, China, and Indonesia. The Rudd government strongly supports U.S. engagement in the Asia-Pacific region and has pledged to maintain Australian troops in Afghanistan. It will withdraw Australia's combat troops from Iraq in 2008, however, leaving air, naval, and training assets in and around Iraq.

ECONOMY

Australia's advanced market economy is dominated by its services sector (72% of GDP), yet it is the agricultural and mining sectors (8% of GDP combined) that account for the bulk (52%) of Australia's exports. Australia's comparative advantage in the export of primary products is a reflection of the natural wealth of the Australian continent and its small domestic market; 21 million people occupy a continent the size of the contiguous United States. The relative size of the manufacturing sector has been declining for several decades, but has now steadied at around 10% of GDP. Australia currently enjoys a record-high terms-of-trade (TOT) that is 30% above its long-run average, reflecting the rise in global commodity prices created by booming demand in China and the drop in prices for imports for manufactured goods, mainly from China.

Since the 1980s, Australia has undertaken significant structural reform of its economy and has transformed itself from an inward-looking, highly protected and regulated marketplace to an open, internationally competitive, export-oriented economy. Key economic reforms included unilaterally reducing high tariffs and other protective barriers to free trade, floating the Australian dollar, deregulating the financial services sector, including liberalizing access for foreign banks, increasing flexibility in the labor market, reducing duplication and increasing efficiency between the federal and state branches of government, privatizing many government-owned monopolies, and reforming the taxation system, including introducing a broad-based Goods and Services Tax (GST) and large reductions in income tax rates.

Australia is now in its 17th year of uninterrupted economic expansion and enjoys a higher standard of living than any G7 country other than the United States. Australia's economic standing in the world is a result of a commitment to best-practice macroeconomic policy settings including the delegation of the conduct of monetary policy to the independent Reserve Bank of Australia, and a broad acceptance of prudent fiscal policy where the government aims for fiscal balance over the economic cycle. The Australian Government has zero net debt and, through the “Future Fund,” is building a net asset position to deal with future liabilities resulting from an aging population. The Australian economy is expected to grow at around 3.5% in 2007.

Two issues, national infrastructure and climate change, currently dominate thinking about economic policy in Australia. The Australian economy is booming and is operating at close to capacity with unemployment near a 32-year low of 4.3%. Both the federal and state governments have recognized the need to invest heavily in water, transport, ports, telecommunications, and education infrastructure to expand Australia's supply capacity. Australia may be coming out of the severe drought conditions it has experienced over the last 5 years, and received above-average rainfall in many areas during the last half 2007. This should somewhat reduce the intense economic and political pressure on governments to build dams, water-recycling facilities, and desalination plants in drought-affected cities such as Brisbane, Canberra, and Perth.

The second significant issue is climate change. A report commissioned by then-Prime Minister John Howard recommended a domestic carbon emissions trading scheme. It also recommended that Australia take an active role in developing a future global carbon emissions trading system. Under new Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, Australia is committed to adopting a domestic carbon trading system by 2010.

The Australia-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA) entered into force on January 1, 2005. The AUSFTA marks the first FTA the U.S. has concluded with a developed economy since the U.S.-Canada FTA in 1988. Australia has also completed FTAs with Singapore and Thailand and is pursuing other FTAs, including with China and Japan. A burgeoning trade relationship marked by ongoing, multibillion dollar resource export contracts and rising manufactured imports has driven FTA negotiations with China. Parallel efforts are underway with Malaysia and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The new Rudd government has restated its commitment to achieving high-quality FTAs with economies in the Asia-Pacific.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Australia has been active participant in international affairs since World War I and since then has fought beside the United States and other Allies in every significant conflict to the present day. In 1944, it concluded an agreement with New Zealand dealing with the security, welfare, and advancement of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific (the ANZAC pact). After the war, Australia played a role in the Far Eastern Commission in Japan and supported Indonesian independence during that country's revolt against the Dutch (1945-49). Australia was one of the founders of both the United Nations and the South Pacific Commission (1947), and in 1950, it proposed the Colombo Plan to assist developing countries in Asia. In addition to contributing to UN forces in Korea—it was the first country to announce it would do so after the United States—Australia sent troops to assist in putting down the communist revolt in Malaya in 1948-60 and later to combat the Indonesian-supported invasion of Sarawak in 1963-65. The U.S., Australia and New Zealand signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951, which remains Australia's only formal security treaty alliance. Australia also sent troops to assist South Vietnamese and U.S. forces in Vietnam and joined coalition forces in the Persian Gulf conflict in 1991, in Afghanistan in 2002, and in Iraq in 2003.

Australia has been active in the Australia-New Zealand-U.K. agreement and the Five-Power Defense Arrangements—successive arrangements with Britain and New Zealand to ensure the security of Singapore and Malaysia.

One of the drafters of the UN Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialized agencies. It was a member of the Security Council in 1986-87, a member of the Economic and Social Council for 1986-89, and a member of the UN Human Rights Commission for 1994-96 and 2003-2005. Australia takes a prominent part in many other UN activities, including peacekeeping, nonproliferation and disarmament negotiations, and narcotics control. Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Regional Heads of Government and the Pacific Islands Forum, and has been a leader in the Cairns Group—countries pressing for agricultural trade reform in World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations—and in founding the APEC forum. In 2002, Australia joined the International Criminal Court.

Australia has devoted particular attention to relations between developed and developing nations, with emphasis on the ten countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the island states of the South Pacific. Australia is an active participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which promotes regional cooperation on security issues, and has been a member of the East Asia Summit since its inauguration in 2005. In September 1999, acting under a UN Security Council mandate, Australia led an international coalition to restore order in East Timor upon Indonesia's withdrawal from that territory. In 2006, Australia participated in an international peacekeeping operation in Timor-Leste (formerly East Timor). Australia led a regional mission to restore law and order in Solomon Islands in 2003 and again in 2006.

In 2006, the government committed to doubling Australia's official development assistance to $4 billion a year by 2010. Australia budgeted $2.48 billion ($A2.95 billion) as official development assistance in FY 2006-2007, and has budgeted $2.66 billion ($A3.16 billion) in 2007-2008. The Australian aid program is currently concentrated in Southeast Asia (Papua New Guinea—PNG—is the largest-single recipient) and the Pacific Islands. In 2004, Australia commenced a 5-year $0.8 billion ($A1.1 billion) Enhanced Cooperation Program (ECP), which involved government officials working alongside their PNG counterparts. The future of the program was called into question in 2005, however, when ECP immunity provisions for Australian officials were successfully challenged in the PNG high court. Selected aid flows are allocated to Africa, South Asia, and reconstruction in Afghanistan and Iraq. Contributions to multilateral organizations and other expenses account for about one-third of the foreign assistance budget.

ANZUS AND DEFENSE

The Australia, New Zealand, United States (ANZUS) security treaty was concluded at San Francisco on September 1, 1951, and entered into force on April 29, 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.

In 1984, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed after the Government of New Zealand refused access to its ports by nuclear-weapons-capable and nuclear-powered ships of the U.S. Navy. The United States suspended defense obligations to New Zealand, and annual bilateral meetings between the U.S. Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Subsequent bilateral Australia-U.S. Ministerial (AUSMIN) meetings have alternated between Australia and the United States. The 21st AUSMIN meeting took place in Washington, DC, on December 12, 2006.

The U.S.-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. Defense ministers of one or both nations have joined the annual ministerial meetings, which are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Combatant Commander, Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defense Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels.

ANZUS has no integrated defense structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training to numerous smaller-scale exercises, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing, where possible, equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate joint defense facilities in Australia.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Australian Prime Minister Howard and U.S. President George Bush jointly invoked the ANZUS Treaty for the first time on September 14, 2001. Australia was one of the earliest participants in Operation Enduring Freedom. Australian Defense Forces participated in coalition military action against Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Australian military and civilian specialists are participating in the training of Iraqi security forces and the reconstruction of Iraq. Australian Special Forces redeployed to Afghanistan to help provide security for the country's September 18, 2005 elections. Based on growing defense commitments, Australia decided to increase the Australian Army from 26,000 to 30,000 over the next several years. This will enable the reestablishment of two infantry battalions, as well as enabling troops, such as a new unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) unit.

The Australian Government has stated its intention to maintain its investment in future capability of the Australian Defense Force (ADF). To do so, the government has committed to a 3% growth in defense funding through 2016 to ensure the ADF can continue to meet capability and interoperability goals. The Australian Defense Force numbers about 51,000 active duty personnel, with planned increases to 57,000 within the next decade. The Royal Australian Navy's (RAN) front-line fleet currently includes 12 frigates, including 4 of the Adelaide class and 8 Australian-built ANZAC class.

In August 2004, Australia selected the Aegis Combat Control System for its three air warfare destroyers (AWD), which will start coming into service in 2014. A decision on a fourth AWD is expected in 2008. The F/A-18 fighter, built in Australia under license from the U.S. manufacturer, is the principal combat aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force, backed by the U.S.-built F-111 strike aircraft. In October 2002, Australia became a Level III partner in the U.S.-led Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program.

Additionally, the Australian Government signed the JSF Production, Sustainment and Follow-on Development MOU in 2006. Australia is projected to buy 100 JSF aircraft with deliveries starting in 2013 and running through 2020, with its decision on the JSF expected in November 2008. The F-111 strike aircraft are scheduled to exit service by 2010 and will be replaced by 24 Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet fighters as an interim strike capability with deliveries commencing in 2010.

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) took its first delivery of a planned buy of 4 Lockheed C-17 strategic airlift aircraft in December 2006. In addition, Boeing will provide the Commonwealth of Australia's RAAF with an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) system based on the Next-Generation 737-700 aircraft as the airborne platform. Recent U.S. sales to the Royal Australian Army include the M1A1 AIM tank, as well as Hellfire and JAVELIN munitions. Future opportunities include the CH-47 helicopter replacements and light cargo aircraft replacements.

U.S.-AUSTRALIAN RELATIONS

The World War II experience, similarities in culture and historical background, and shared democratic values have made U.S. relations with Australia exceptionally strong and close. Ties linking the two nations cover the entire spectrum of international relations—from commercial, cultural, and environmental contacts to political and defense cooperation. Two-way trade reached almost $26 billion in 2006. More than 456,000 Americans visited Australia in 2006.

Traditional friendship is reinforced by the wide range of common interests and similar views on most major international questions. For example, both countries sent military forces to the Persian Gulf in support of UN Security Council resolutions relating to Iraq's occupation of Kuwait; both attach high priority to controlling and eventually eliminating chemical weapons, other weapons of mass destruction, and anti-personnel landmines; and both work closely on global environmental issues such as slowing climate change and preserving coral reefs. The Australian Government and opposition share the view that Australia's security depends on firm ties with the United States, and the ANZUS Treaty enjoys broad bipartisan support. Recent Presidential visits to Australia (in 1991, 1996, 2003 and September 2007), a Vice Presidential visit in February 2007, and Australian Prime Ministerial visits to the United States (in 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006) have underscored the strength and closeness of the alliance.

The bilateral Australia-U.S. Free Trade Agreement (AUSFTA) entered into force on January 1, 2005. This comprehensive agreement, only the second FTA the U.S. had negotiated with a developed nation, substantially liberalizes an already vibrant trade and investment relationship. The AUSFTA also creates a range of ongoing working groups and committees designed to explore further trade reform in the bilateral context. Both countries share a commitment to liberalizing global trade. They work together very closely in the World Trade Organization (WTO), and both are active members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.

A number of U.S. institutions conduct scientific activities in Australia because of its geographical position, large land mass, advanced technology, and, above all, the ready cooperation of its government and scientists. In 2005, a bilateral science and technology agreement was renewed. Under another agreement dating back to 1960 and since renewed, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) maintains in Australia one of its largest and most important program outside the United States, including a number of tracking facilities vital to the U.S. space program. Indicative of the broad-ranging U.S.-Australian cooperation on other global issues, a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT) was concluded in 1997, enhancing already close bilateral cooperation on legal and counter-narcotics issues.

In 2001, the U.S. and Australia signed a new tax treaty and a bilateral social security agreement. The U.S. Studies Centre was launched in 2006 at the University of Sydney with Commonwealth funding of Au$25 million. In April 2007, Australia and the U.S. agreed to each resettle up to 200 refugees processed in the other country each year as a means of deterring unauthorized arrivals and people smugglers.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

CANBERRA (E) American Embassy Canberra, Moonah Place, Yarralumla ACT 2600 AUSTRALIA, APO/FPO PSC 277 APO, AP 96549, 61-2-6214-5600, Fax 61-2-6214-5970, Workweek: Mon–Fri / 8:00am to 5:00pm, Website: http://canberra.usembassy.gov.

MELBOURNE (CG) 553 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 3004, APO/FPO PSC 278, APO, AP 96551, + 61 3 9526 5900, Fax + 61 3 9510-4646, INMARSAT Tel Iridium 014-716-9057, Workweek: M-F, 8:00–5:00, Website: http://melbourne.usconsulate.gov/melbourne/index.html.

State ICASS: Grace Stettenbauer

SYDNEY (CG) 59th Floor, MLC Centre, 19-29 Martin Place, APO/ FPO PSC 280, Unit 11026, APO, AP 96554-0002, (61) (2)9373-9200, Fax (61) (2) 9373-9125, Workweek: M-F, 0815–1700, Website: http://sydney.usconsulate.gov/sydney/index.html

PERTH (C) Level 13, 16 St Georges Tce, APO/FPO Unit 11021, APO AP96530, 61-8-9202-1224, Fax 61-8-9231-9444, Workweek: M–F; 8:00 am–5:00 pm, Website: http://perth.usconsulate.gov/perth/index.html

The U.S. Embassy in Australia is located at Moonah Place, Yarralumla, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2600 (tel. 2-6214-5600; fax 6214-5970). Consulates General are in Sydney, (address: MLC Centre, Level 59, 19-29 Martin Place, Sydney, NSW 2000; tel. 2-9373-9200; fax 2-9373-9125); Melbourne (address: 553 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004; tel. 3-9526-5900; fax 3-9510-4646); and Perth (address: 4th Floor, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, WA 6000; tel. 9-202-1224; fax. 9-231-9444).

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 25, 2007

Country Description: Australia is a highly developed stable democracy with a federal-state system. Tourist facilities are widely available.

Entry Requirements: American citizens are required to have a valid U.S. passport to enter Australia. Americans must enter with an Australian visa or, if eligible, through Electronic Travel Authority (ETA). The ETA replaces a visa and allows a stay of up to three months. It may be obtained for a small service fee at http://www.eta.immi.gov.au. Airlines and many travel agents in the United States are also able to issue ETA's. Please note that American citizens, who overstay their ETA or visa, even for short periods, may be subject to exclusion, detention, and removal. More information about the ETA, other visas, and entry requirements may be obtained from the Embassy of Australia at 1601 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20036, telephone (202) 797-3000, or via the Australian Embassy home page on the Internet at http://www.austemb.org. Visa inquires may be directed to the Australian Visa Information Service at 888-990-8888.Visit the Embassy of Australiaweb site at http://www.austemb.org/ for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Australia has instituted an alert system for possible terrorist attacks. The threat levels range from “low” to “high.”The Australian Attorney General's Office maintains a website with up-to-date information regarding the current assessment of the terrorism threat at http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au.

American citizens are reminded to maintain a high level of vigilance and to take appropriate steps to increase their security awareness. Travelers may also contact the Australian National Security Hotline at 61-1-800-123-400.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affair's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Visitors should be aware that street crime, burglaries, and car thefts are a daily occurrence in Australia's larger cities. Weapons are increasingly used in such crimes, which also may be associated with drug trafficking and usage. Foreign visitors are sometimes targets for pickpockets, purse-snatchers and petty thieves. There have also been reports of drink spiking in some areas.

Appropriate, common sense precautions should be taken, especially at night, to avoid becoming a target of opportunity. To call for fire/police/ ambulance services throughout Australia, dial “000” for urgent assistance.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Every state in Australia has a crime victim assistance program that includes crimes against international visitors. Information on these local programs may be found at http://www.vaonline.org.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Excellent medical care is available. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars. Most doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash/credit card payment for health services.

Visitors are cautioned that Australian fauna can be as dangerous as they are inspiring. From jellyfish off the Great Barrier Reef to crocodiles and sharks, poisonous insects and snakes, the continent and its waters host wildlife that merit awe and respect in equal doses. Further information on Australian wildlife may be obtained from the Wet Tropics Management Authority Information on Marine Life at http://www.wettropics.gov.au/vi/vi_marine.html and the Wet Tropics Management Authority information on animals at http://www.wettropics.gov.au/vi/vi_animals.html.

Swimmers should use safety precautions, swim between the flags only where a lifeguard is present, and never swim alone. Scuba diving can be a treacherous sport. Over the past few years there have been numerous deaths related to diving incidents. Divers are urged to follow recommended precautions and never dive alone.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's internet site at wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Australia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Visitors are reminded that all traffic operates on the left side of the road, and that all vehicles use right-hand drive. Visitors should use caution when crossing streets and when driving. When crossing roads, pedestrians are reminded to look carefully in all directions. Seat belts are mandatory. Speed limits and laws regarding driving while intoxicated are rigorously enforced. Roads and streets are frequently narrower and less graded than U.S. highways. Out-side the major metropolitan areas, most highways are two-lane roads with significant distances between destinations.

Drivers are urged to exercise caution while passing or merging with adjacent traffic. When driving in rural areas, particularly in the Northern Territory where there are no speed limits, drivers should be cautious of free-roaming animals and “road-trains” (several semi-truck trailers connected together). It is dangerous to pass road-trains, and it is advisable to pull over and allow on-coming road-trains to pass to avoid being sideswiped. A number of fatalities have occurred in the Northern Territory when vehicles driven at high rates of speed have skidded and overturned after hitting the loose gravel shoulder of the road. U.S. drivers, especially those inexperienced with 4-wheel drive vehicles, should exercise common-sense judgment when driving in outback Australia.

For specific information concerning Australian driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax, mandatory insurance, and the rental and operation of motor vehicles in Australia, contact the Australian Tourist Commission.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Australia's Civil Aviation Authority as being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for oversight of Australia's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Australian customs authorities enforce very strict regulations concerning the importation from all countries of items such as agricultural and wood products, as well as very strict quarantine standards for other products, animals, and pets. These regulations also apply to items tourists bring with them. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Australia in Washington or one of Australia's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements, or see the Australian Government's Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry at http://www.aqis.gov.au.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Australia's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Australia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Australia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security Australia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

In the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) or Queanbeyan: For emergency services (i.e. the arrest, death or serious injury of American citizens) please contact the U.S. Embassy in Canberra. The Embassy is located on Moonah Place, Yarralumla, ACT 2600, telephone (61) (2) 6214-5600, fax (61) (2) 6273-3191, web site http://canberra.usembassy.gov.

Note: Passports and other routine citizen services for Canberra and the rest of the ACT are provided by the U.S. Consulate in Sydney.

In New South Wales, Norfolk Island, Lord Howe Island and Queensland: For registration, passport, and other consular services for American citizens, please contact the U.S. Consulate General in Sydney located on Level 59, MLC Centre, 19-29 Martin Place, Sydney NSW 2000, telephone (61) (2) 9373-9200, fax (61) (2) 9373-9184, web site http://sydney.usconsulate.gov/sydney/index.html. Hours open to the public: 8:00 a.m. to 11:30 a.m., Monday to Friday (except American and Australian holidays and the first Wednesday of each month). For emergency services (i.e. the arrest, death or serious injury of American citizens) after 5:00 p.m. weekdays or on holidays and weekends please call (61) (2) 4422-220

In Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and the Northern Territory: For registration, passport and other consular services for American citizens, please contact the U.S. Consulate General in Melbourne located at 553 St. Kilda Road, Melbourne, VIC 3004, telephone (61) (3) 9526-5900, fax (61) (3) 9525-0769, web site http://melbourne.usconsulate.gov/melbourne/index.html. Hours open to the public: 8:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. Monday to Friday (except American and Australian holidays and the last Wednesday of each month). For emergency services (i.e. the arrest, death or serious injury of American citizens) after 4:30 p.m. or on holidays and weekends, please call (61) (3) 9389-3601.

In Western Australia: For registration, passport, and other consular services for American citizens, please contact the U.S. Consulate General in Perth located at 16 St. Georges Terrace, Perth WA 6000, telephone: (61)(8) 9202-1224, fax (61)(8) 9231-9444; web site http://perth.usconsu-late.gov/perth. Hours open to the public for American Citizen Services: 8:30-11:30 a.m. Monday through Thursday. For emergency services (i.e. the arrest, death, or serious injury of an American citizen), outside of business hours please call (61) (8) 9476-0081.

International Parental Child Abduction

February 2008

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Parental Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

General Information: Custody in Australia is referred to as “parental responsibility.” Unless there is a court order to the contrary, the parents of a child are assumed to have “joint parental responsibility.” A court-issued “residence” order specifies who will be the primary physical custodian of the child. A “contact” order is similar to a U.S. visitation or access order. Australian family courts adjudicate petitions on a case-by-case basis with the judge applying the “best interests of the child” standard. The amount of access allowed a non-custodial parent is also decided on a case-by-case basis, and may be denied under certain egregious circumstances. Legitimacy of the child is not a factor in a judge's determination.

If your child has a claim to Australian citizenship, you may be able to prevent the issuance of an Australian passport to your child. Please contact a consular officer at the Australian Embassy in Washington, D.C. (202-797-3000) for further information. There is also an Australian Consulate in California (310-229-4800).

The Hague Convention: The United States is a party to the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. Its purpose is to discourage international parental child abduction and to ensure that children who are abducted or wrongfully retained, are returned to their country of habitual residence. The Convention does not deal with child custody itself, but determines the jurisdiction where those custody issues should be adjudicated.

The Hague Convention entered into force between the United States and Australia on July 1, 1988. Therefore, Hague Convention provisions for return would apply to children abducted to or retained in Australia after July 1, 1988. Under certain circumstances, parents and legal guardians of children taken to Australia prior to July 1, 1988, may still submit applications for access to the child under the Hague Convention.

The designated Central Authority for all of Australia is the Commonwealth Attorney General's Department, International Family Law Section, which is part of the Family Law and Legal Assistance Division. Their address is Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit, Barton, ACT 2600, Australia. The international telephone number is 011-61-2-6250-6724 and the international telefax number is 011-61-2-6250-5917. The Section maintains a website, which is located at http://www.law.gov.au/childabduction. For more information, please read the International Parental Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Criminal Remedies: For information on possible criminal remedies, please contact your local law enforcement authorities, or the nearest office of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Information is also available on the Internet at the web site of the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention at http://www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org. You should be aware that filing criminal child abduction charges in the United States against a taking parent may jeopardize an Australian Hague Convention case.

For further information on international parental child abduction, contact the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State at 1-888-407-4747 or visit its web site on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov/family. You may also direct inquiries to: Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-4811; Phone: (202) 736-9090; Fax: (202) 312-9743.