Shakespeare, William

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William Shakespeare

BORN: April 23, 1564 • Stratford-upon-Avon, England

DIED: April 23, 1616 • Stratford-upon-Avon, England

English playwright; poet

Considered the greatest playwright in the English language and one of the greatest writers in the world, William Shakespeare created a body of work that has remained unparalleled for its poetic brilliance and its depth of understanding. His long poems and sonnets are among the best in the English language. But his masterpieces are his plays, which communicated the vast complexity of human experience through characters that were more real than literature had ever known.

"Men at some time are masters of their fates: The fault … is not in our stars, but in ourselves, that we are underlings."

More than any writer before him, Shakespeare created individual characters with deep and conflicted inner lives, who recognized their capacities to act and to change. As poet Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), quoted by Harold Bloom in Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human, wrote, Shakespeare created "forms more real than living men." Audiences from Shakespeare's time onward have related to the psychological and emotional issues explored in his work, which continues to be read and performed throughout the world more than four centuries later.

Early life and family

Born in the small but prosperous town of Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, William Shakespeare was the son of glovemaker John Shakespeare and his wife, Mary Arden. John Shakespeare, a farmer's son, had earned success in his trade and held various government positions in the town. Mary Shakespeare, of a slightly higher social class, was the daughter of a local landowner. William was the oldest of six children. He had three younger brothers and two younger sisters; one sister died in childhood.

Few facts are available about Shakespeare's early life. It is most likely that he, like other Stratford children, attended the local grammar school, the King's New School. Here students learned Latin, logic, and rhetoric (the art of constructing formal arguments). It was a rigorous course of study that familiarized students with the works of ancient Roman writers such as Ovid (43 bce–17 ce) and Virgil (70–19 bce).

Though many of the most outstanding Elizabethan poets and playwrights studied at university, there is no record of Shakespeare having done so. In 1582, at age eighteen, he married a slightly older local woman, Ann Hathaway (c. 1556–1623). She gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, six months later. The couple had twins—a boy, Hamnet, and a girl, Judith—in 1585. Hamnet died at age eleven, but his sister survived. Judith had one daughter, Elizabeth, who was Shakespeare's last descendant; she died in 1670. Though Shakespeare lived most of his adult life in London, he maintained close ties to Stratford and returned to live there after retiring from writing plays.

Joins London theater world

Nothing is known about Shakespeare's activities between 1585 and 1592. By 1592, however, he was known in London; playwright and critic Robert Green (c. 1560–1592) wrote a jealous attack that year dismissing him as an upstart. This suggests that Shakespeare had already begun to establish a literary reputation. By 1594 he was acting with and writing plays for the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a theater company for which he was also a managing partner. Their playhouse, The Theater, was located in Shoreditch, just north of London. Most of the city's local leaders were Puritans, or strict Protestants. Because the Puritan leaders disapproved of many popular entertainments such as plays and gambling, they banned theaters from operating within the city proper. Thus, theaters were built outside the city walls. Despite the fact that they were not considered entirely respectable, theaters were extremely popular. Plays drew large audiences and often attracted disreputable characters such as pickpockets. The Theater was the most popular playhouse in London. Its principal actor, Richard Burbage (c. 1567–1619), is credited with doing more than any of his contemporaries to increase respect for the theater profession.

Shakespeare began writing for the stage at a time when English theater was entering an exciting new era. Playwrights were experimenting with new forms, incorporating elements of classical (ancient Greek and Roman) and Renaissance literature into their work. (The Renaissance was the era beginning around 1350 in Europe, in which scholars turned their attention to classical Greek and Latin learning and shifted to a more rational [based on reason rather than spiritual belief or church authority] approach to philosophy, religion, and science.) Earlier plays were generally unsophisticated pieces; they dramatized moral issues or religious stories or presented bawdy (sexually suggestive) comedy. But Elizabethan plays emphasized tragedy, and featured tragic heroes as serious, complex figures. Elizabethan playwrights were also exploring the possibilities of dramatic verse. Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593; see entry), for example, was the first to demonstrate the power of blank verse, a type of poetry with regular meter (the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables) but no rhyme, in stage dialogue. Shakespeare went on to take dramatic blank verse to brilliant new heights, with language filled with puns, complex metaphors, and rich imagery. (Puns are a deliberate confusion of similar-sounding words usually for humorous effect; metaphors are comparisons made between two seemingly unrelated subjects.)

Scholars disagree as to the exact dating of Shakespeare's thirty-seven plays, many of which were not published until after his death. According to a chronology accepted by many historians, Shakespeare's first plays were his history cycle, Henry VI, Part One, Henry VI, Part Two, Henry VI, Part Three, and Richard III, which date from 1589 to 1593. These works conformed to the traditional genre of chronicle, or history, plays that were quite popular in Elizabethan times. (History plays are plays about historical figures and events.) But Shakespeare's works far surpassed previous examples of this type of play, which merely presented a sequence of events. Shakespeare provided a larger shape for his cycle of plays. Together, they made the story the Tudor dynasty, or period of reign by a particular ruling family, from which Elizabeth I (1533–1603; see entry)

Elizabethan Theaters

Plays in Shakespeare's time were performed outdoors and attracted large audiences. Public theaters, like the Theater or the Globe, were large wooden structures that were roughly circular. The galleries along the sides were covered, but most of the structure, including the large raised stage which projected about halfway into the theater, was unroofed. All of the actors were males; younger men or boys played the roles of women characters. No scenery was used. This allowed for unhindered movement on stage, with plenty of room for the battle scenes and swordfights that were an exciting part of many plays.

Among the leading theaters in Elizabethan London were the Swan, the Rose, and the Globe. The Globe was built in 1599 after its owners, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, were forced to find a new location for their popular theater in north London, the Theater. They had the Theater dismantled and reassembled on the south bank of the River Thames in Southwark, and named the new building the Globe Theater. Shakespeare, a member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, wrote exclusively for them and most of his greatest plays were performed at the Globe.

The Globe, which opened with a performance of Shakespeare's Henry V, could accommodate an audience of about three thousand people, and individuals from all walks of life attended plays there. The least expensive ticket allowed people to stand in the yard, at the base of the stage. These spectators, called "groundlings," were often uneducated or even illiterate, but they enjoyed Shakespeare's plays as much as the more educated theatergoers did. It was not uncommon for audiences to bring food and drink into the theater, and even throw food at the stage when they disliked a performance.

The Globe burned down in 1613, after material from a cannon that was shot off during a performance of Henry VIII set fire to the gallery roof, which was made of thatch (thick straw). Its owners rebuilt it and it reopened later that year. By the 1640s, however, the Puritan faction had succeeded in shutting down theaters in London. The Globe was torn down in 1644 and housing was built on its site. A replica of the famous theater now stands on or near its location in south London.

was descended, into an epic story. Each of the four plays in this cycle was an integral part of the whole.

Henry TV, Part One, generally considered Shakespeare's finest history play, was probably written around 1596. It takes as its subject the Scottish rebellion against Henry IV (1366–1413), who had earlier usurped the English throne from Richard II (1367–1400). To many scholars, the most interesting dynamics in the play occur between the king's son, Prince Hal, and his comrade, Sir John Falstaff. Indeed, Falstaff—who exudes intense joy—is generally considered to be Shakespeare's finest comic character.

Shakespeare's earliest comedies, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Comedy of Errors, and The Taming of the Shrew, also date from around 1592 to 1593. Titus Andronicus, his first tragedy, was written around 1593. The playwright used an extensive range of influences in these works, from English folklore to classical plays and Italian Renaissance literature.

Shakespeare's more mature plays from the 1590s include the comedies A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado About Nothing, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and As You Like It. In these works Shakespeare demonstrated increasing stylistic sophistication. His use of blank verse became more complex, and his dialogue became more rich, dynamic, and effective.

The middle period: 1594–1600

In 1599 the Lord Chamberlain's Men built the Globe Theater on the south bank of the Thames River. Many of Shakespeare's greatest plays were written in the first ten years of the company's residence at the Globe, and they were first performed there. Examples include the tragedies Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello, and King Lear; and the comedies Twelfth Night, All's Well That Ends Well, and Measure for Measure. These later comedies, noted for their darker tone, are sometimes called the "problem plays." Less reliant on elements of traditional comedy, they explore serious themes and are far less cheerful than the earlier comedies.

Among Shakespeare's major tragedies, scholars often cite Hamlet as the greatest. Based on a legend from Denmark, it follows some conventions of the genre known as revenge tragedy, which was immensely popular. As the term suggests, revenge tragedies concerned the theme of vengeance for a past wrong—usually murder. Like typical revenge tragedies, Hamlet ended with a stage scattered with bloody corpses. But Shakespeare's work rose far above the standard plays of this genre, largely because he invested the character of Hamlet, a young man who seeks to avenge his father's death, with such complex human feeling.

When Hamlet learns that his father had been killed by Hamlet's uncle, now married to Hamlet's mother, the young prince is tormented by intense and contradictory emotions. He struggles with his conscience and his personality about what action to take. Indeed, in his famous soliloquy (a speech intended only for the audience to hear, as if the character is speaking aloud to himself), he wonders whether to commit suicide, endure his sorrows, or fight them: "To be, or not to be, that is the question—/ Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer / The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, / Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, / And by opposing end them." According to Bloom, Hamlet is the most fully human of Shakespeare's characters and is, except for Jesus Christ, the most-referenced figure in Western culture.

Macbeth, based on the history of an ancient Scottish king, Duncan, is Shakespeare's shortest tragedy. Its theme is the danger of unrestrained ambition. Macbeth, a Scottish noble, meets three witches who predict that he will become king. Though he had been King Duncan's loyal general, Macbeth now wishes to fulfill the prophecy. His wife urges him to go along with her plan to murder the king while he is staying in their castle. Though at first he worries about committing such an immoral act, Macbeth stabs the king to death and seizes the throne. Increasingly concerned that his enemies will rise against him, Macbeth slaughters many innocents before he is killed in battle. One of the most notable features of the play is the character of Lady Macbeth, who is more bloodthirsty and cold-hearted than her husband.

Shakespeare based King Lear on an old English legend. In Shakespeare's version, Lear, an old man, needs to decide how to divide up his kingdom among his daughters. He demands that they demonstrate their love for him. He fails to recognize that his two older daughters, who pretend affection, care only about getting the inheritance. By contrast, his youngest daughter, Cordelia, refuses to play her sisters' game because she recognizes it is insincere. Lear, however, is blind to the truth and banishes her. He realizes his mistake too late, after Cordelia dies. In the play's most powerful scene, the man who was once a great king is now ragged and in despair, wandering over the moors carrying Cordelia's lifeless body.

In Othello a jealous husband is driven to murder when his trusted general, Iago, suggests that Othello's wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful. Othello cannot see that Iago hates him and wishes to destroy him. He goes along with Iago's scheme to demonstrate proof of Desdemona's betrayal, and finally kills her. The play's subtitle, "The Moor of Venice," refers to the fact that Othello is a black African; his wife is white. Shakespeare uses black-white imagery throughout the play, especially in Iago's speeches, which demonstrate the villain's crude racism and contempt for women.

In 1603 James I (1566–1625; see entry) granted the Lord Chamberlain's Men a royal patent, and the company changed its name to the King's Men. This royal support helped to increase the status of theater professionals. James enjoyed plays, and the company performed at court several times a year. The King's Men also performed at an indoor private venue in London, the Blackfriars Theater.

The later period: 1600–1608

The plays that Shakespeare wrote in the final years of his career are sometimes classified as romances. They conform less closely to conventional genres of comedy or tragedy, mixing elements from several genres within one work. The major plays from this period date from between about 1607 and 1613, and they include Coriolanus, Timon of Athens, Pericles, Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, and The Tempest.

The Winter's Tale is considered one of Shakespeare's finest plays. It begins as a tragedy but then shifts to pastoral comedy, or a comedy about country life. Leontes, king of Bohemia, irrationally suspects his friend, Polixenes, of having an affair with Leontes's wife. He orders Polixenes killed and orders the wife, Hermione, thrown into prison where she gives birth to a daughter. Leontes orders this child to be killed as well, but instead she is adopted by shepherds. Polixines, too, escapes. Sixteen years later the action shifts and the tragic actions are resolved, often through wondrous events.

The Tempest is Shakespeare's best-known play from this late period, and some scholars consider it his farewell to the theater, since he retired soon after producing it. Magic plays a prominent part in the play, which concerns a powerful sorcerer, Prospero, whose brother stole his kingdom and set him adrift at sea with his baby daughter. They are saved by an enchantress, and live on a remote island for several years. Discovering that this untrustworthy brother will be passing near the island on a ship, Prospero conjures a storm that makes his brother a castaway on the island. After much romantic plotting and scheming with his servant, the strange and demonic creature Ariel, Prospero sees to it that kingdoms and relationships are restored to their proper order.

Poetry

From 1593 to 1594 London theaters were closed because of plague in the city. (The plague was a disease that killed nearly one-fourth of the city's population.) Needing income, Shakespeare wrote two long poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, for his patron, or financial supporter, the earl of Southampton. These works are considered masterpieces of Elizabethan narrative poetry. (A narrative poem is a poem that tells a story.)

Shakespeare's best-known poems, however, are his sonnet sequence, probably also composed around this time but not published until 1609. Sonnets are fourteen-line poems written in iambic pentameter—ten syllables in each line, with the emphasis on the second syllable in each word or phrase. The sonnet sequence, in which individual poems are arranged to develop a particular theme or argument, had been made popular by Philip Sidney (1554–1586; see entry). Shakespeare's contribution to the genre established him as one of the finest poets in the English language.

The 154 poems of Shakespeare's sonnet sequence form an extended dialogue between the poet or speaker and two mysterious characters: a "friend" who appears to be a young man, and a "dark lady." The poems consider themes of beauty, friendship, love, and death, often expressing conflicting feelings within a single poem. They are considered masterpieces that, alone, would have established Shakespeare's reputation as a poetic genius.

Last years: 1608–1616

Shakespeare's career was quite successful. He earned a comfortable income from his plays and from his share in the profits of the theater company. In 1596 his father had obtained the right to have a coat-of-arms (a symbol representing a family), and Shakespeare inherited this after his father's death in 1601. The playwright was also granted the right to call himself a gentleman—a distinguished achievement in an age that often considered actors to be disreputable.

In 1597 Shakespeare purchased a large house, New Place, in Stratford. This became his family home. Over the years he invested in additional property in Stratford. He retired there around 1611, and lived quietly with his family. He died there on his birthday, April 23, 1616, at age 52. He was buried at Holy Trinity Church.

Was Someone Else Shakespeare?

While most critics and historians believe that William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon was the writer of the plays now credited to him, many others over the years have doubted it. Most point to the limited education Shakespeare received in Stratford and note the vast knowledge displayed by the author of the plays. Some find evidence that the plays were written from the perspective of a member of the aristocracy, not the son of a glove maker. Others point to the lack of any reference to a playwright from Stratford in the documents of the era. These skeptics have suggested other authors for the plays, primarily the scientist and writer Francis Bacon (1561–1626; see entry), Christopher Marlowe, William Stanley (Earl of Derby; 1561–1642), and Edward de Vere (Earl of Oxford; 1550–1604). Most such claims have been discredited, however.

Shakespeare's work was so admired in his own time that, in 1623, two actors compiled his plays and published them in the First Folio. This volume contained thirty-six plays, including Henry VIII, on which he collaborated with playwright John Fletcher (1579–1625). The First Folio did not contain Pericles, which is not accepted by most scholars as Shakespeare's work.

Actors, audiences, and readers through the centuries have continued to find new excitement in Shakespeare's work. As his contemporary Ben Jonson (1572–1637) wrote in a preface to the First Folio, Shakespeare "was not of an age, but for all time!"