MONETARY UNIT: The kyat (k) is a paper currency of 100 pyas. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 pyas and 1 kyat, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 100 kyats. k1 = $0.17182 (or $1 = k5.82) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Both British and metric weights and measures are in general use, but local units also are employed.

HOLIDAYS: Independence Day, 4 January; Union Day, 12 February; Peasants’ Day, 2 March; Defense Services Day, 27 March; Burmese New Year, 17 April; World Workers’ Day, 1 May; Martyrs’ Day, 19 July; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include Full Moon of Tabaung, February or March; Thingyan (Water Festival), April; Full Moon of Kason, April or May; Waso (Beginning of Buddhist Lent), June or July; Thadingyut (End of Buddhist Lent), October; and Tazaungdaing, November.

TIME: 6:30 pm = noon GMT.

1 Location and Size

Located in Southeast Asia, Myanmar has an area of 678,500 square kilometers (261,969 square miles), slightly smaller than the state of Texas.

The country has a total land boundary length of 5,858 kilometers (3,640 miles). The total coastline length is 1,930 kilometers (1,197 miles).

Myanmar’s capital city, Yangon (formerly Rangoon), is located in the southern part of the country.

2 Topography

Myanmar is divided into four topographic regions: a mountainous area in the north and west; the Shan Highlands and plateau in the east; central Myanmar, a principal area of cultivation; and the fertile delta and lower valley regions of the Irrawaddy and Sittang rivers in the south. The highest point is at Hkakabo Razi, an elevation of 5,881 meters (19,294 feet). The lowest point is at sea level (Andaman Sea).

The Irrawaddy River, with a length of 2,170 kilometers (1,350 miles), is the longest river

GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Geographic Features

Area: 678,500 sq km (261,969 sq mi)

Size ranking: 39 of 194

Highest elevation: 5,881 meters (19,294 feet) at Hkakabo Razi

Lowest elevation: Sea level at the Andaman Sea

Land Use*

Arable land: 15%

Permanent crops: 1%

Other: 84%

Weather**

Average annual precipitation: 261.8 centimeters (103.1 inches)

Average temperature in January: 24.8°c (76.6°f) Average temperature in July: 26.6°c (79.9°f)

* Arable Land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses.

Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards.

Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.

** The measurements for precipitation and average temperatures were taken at weather stations closest to the country’s largest city.

Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.

entirely within the borders of Myanmar. The Mekong, which traces the Myanmar border with Laos, covers a length of 235 kilometers (146 miles) within Myanmar, but has a total length of 4,200 kilometers (2,600 miles). The largest lake in the country is Indawgyi Lake in the north, with an area of 116 square kilometers (45 square miles).

3 Climate

Myanmar has a largely tropical climate with three seasons. Rainfall ranges from about 76 centimeters (30 inches) in central Myanmar to more than 500 centimeters (200 inches) in upper Myanmar during the monsoon season.

The average annual temperature is 27°c (81°f); average daily temperatures in Yangon (Rangoon) range from 18 to 32°c (64 to 90°f) in January, during the cool season, and from 24 to 36°c (75 to 97°f) in April, during the hot season.

4 Plants and Animals

Myanmar has a wide variety of plant and animal life. Teak, representing about 25% of the total forested area, thrives mainly in the mountainous regions. Evergreen, bamboo, and palm are prominent in the freshwater delta swamps and along the coastlands. Mangroves are found in the salty coastal marshes. There are temperate forests and rolling grasslands in the Shan Highlands and scrub vegetation in the dry central area. There are about 12 species of monkeys, as well as tigers, leopards, elephants, and half-wild pariah dogs. Fish abound along the coastline, in the tidal waters of the delta, and in the rivers and streams.

5 Environment

In Myanmar, the principal environmental threats come from cyclones, flooding during the monsoon season, and regular earthquakes. Deforestation for farming is the most persistent ecological problem caused by humans. By 1994, two-thirds of Myanmar’s tropical forests had been eliminated. However, the nation still had the world’s eighth-largest mangrove area. Inadequate sanitation and water treatment are leading contributors to disease. Environmental concerns have been given low priority by the government.

As of 2006, threatened species included 39 types of mammals, 41 species of birds, 20 types of reptiles, 7 species of fish, 1 type of mollusk, 1 species of other invertebrate, and 38 species of plants. The Javan rhinoceros is extinct. Threatened species include the pink-headed duck, Asian elephant, Malaysian tapir, freshwater sawfish, Sumatran rhinoceros, Siamese crocodile, hawksbill turtle, gaur, and sun bear.

6 Population

In 2005, Myanmar had an estimated population of 50,519,000. The population for 2025 is projected 59,002,000. Average population density in 2005 was estimated at 76 persons per square kilometer (197 per square mile). Yangon (formerly Rangoon), the capital, had a metropolitan population of 3,874,000 in 2005.

7 Migration

The government has sought to curtail both immigration and emigration. As many as 500,000 persons may have left Myanmar during the 1960s. About 187,000 Muslims who fled to Bangladesh in 1978 because of alleged atrocities by the military were repatriated with the help of UN agencies by the end of 1981, but lost their citizenship in 1982. About 500,000 poor urban

residents were forcibly relocated to rural areas between 1989 and 1992.

In 2000, the total number of migrants residing in Myanmar numbered 113,000. In 2005, the estimated net migration rate was -1.8 per 1000 population.

8 Ethnic Groups

The Myanma (Burman), ethnically related to the Tibetans, account for about 68% of Myanmar’s total population. Although much ethnic fusion has taken place, most ethnic groups retain their distinct cultural entities and have sought to preserve their autonomy, sometimes by violent means.

As of 2003, the Shan made up about 9% of the population, the Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, and other 5%.

9 Languages

Burmese, the official language, is spoken by at least 80% of the population. Pronunciation varies greatly from area to area. Loan words from other languages are common. Burmese is the language of government, but the ethnic minorities have their own languages.

10 Religions

According to government statistics, Theravada Buddhism is practiced by about 90% of the population. A number of adherents combine their practice with traditional practices such as astrology, numerology, fortune-telling, and the veneration of pre-Buddhist deities called nats.

The Chinese in Myanmar practice a traditional mixture of Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and ancestor worship; the Indians are Hindus; the Pakistanis are Muslims; and most of the Europeans are Christians. About 4% of the population are Christian, with Baptists, Catholics, and Anglicans being the primary denominations. About 4% of the population are Muslim, mostly Sunni.

11 Transportation

Historically, Myanmar has been dependent on sea and river transport externally and internally, supplemented in modern times by the airplane. There were an estimated 28,200 kilometers

(17,523 miles) of roads in 2002, but only 3,440 kilometers (2,138 miles) were paved. In 2003, Myanmar had about 6,800 passenger cars and 14,000 commercial vehicles. Myanmar’s railway system, a government monopoly, operates 3,955 kilometers (2,460 miles) of track.

Inland waterways are crucial to internal transportation, partly compensating for limited railroad and highway development. Some 500,000 small river craft sail the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Sittang rivers and their numerous tributaries. The state merchant fleet totaled 37 ships in 2005, with a combined gross registered tons (GRT) of 429,144.

Yangon is the chief port for ocean shipping, handling the majority of the country’s seaborne trade. Other ports include Akyab (Sittwe), serving western Myanmar; Pathein (Bassein), serving the delta area; and Mawlamyine (Moulmein), Dawei (Tavoy), and Mergui, which handle mineral and timber exports of the southern region.

Mingaladon, outside of Yangon, is the principal airport. In 2003, 1,117,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

12 History

The founding of a kingdom at Pagan in ad 1044 by Anawrahta marks the beginning of Myanmar’s political identity. The kingdom survived until 1287, when it was destroyed by the armies of Kublai Khan, and for the next five centuries conflict reigned. In 1754, however, Alaungpaya united northern and southern Myanmar and founded the last ruling dynasty, which was in power until the British came in the early 19th century.

The British conquest of Myanmar spanned 62 years, from the first Anglo-Burmese War in 1824–26 to 1 January 1886, when total annexation of Myanmar was proclaimed following the territory’s defeat in the third war. Incorporated into the British Indian Empire, Myanmar was administered as a province of India until 1937, when it became a separate colony.

National Independence From 1886 to 1948, the inhabitants fought continually for independence. The nationalists who finally gained freedom for Myanmar were a group of socialist-minded intellectuals called the Thakins, from the University of Rangoon. At the start of World War II (1939–45), these anti-British nationalists collaborated with the Japanese but were soon disappointed when the Japanese occupied the country. The group was then converted into an anti-Japanese guerrilla force that assisted the British in the liberation of Myanmar.

In 1946, after the end of World War II, the sovereign Union of Burma came into being. In 1951 the nation held its first parliamentary elections. The decade of the 1950s brought an ambitious land reform program and an attempt to forge a neutral foreign policy. However, the country was faced with periodic communist rebellions and an off-and-on border dispute with China.

A coup on 2 March 1962 overthrew the government and a military regime assumed control. The Socialist Republic of Burma was proclaimed on 3 January 1974. Under a new constitution, a president was elected, but the government continued to be dominated by the military. At this time, the country’s only legal political organization was the Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP). Meanwhile, a guerrilla war in border areas of the north and east continued through the 1980s. It was fought by the underground Burmese Communist Party and rebel ethnic groups.

When the military became dissatisfied with the government and the ruling BSPP party, it staged another military coup. On 18 September 1988, the army abolished the BSPP, took over the government, and imposed military rule under the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). The SLORC was headed by the army chief of staff, General Saw Maung. On 18 June 1989 the Saw Maung regime renamed Burma “Myanmar,” the historic Burman name for the country.

The takeover of the government by the military prompted dissent among the population. Among the most prominent dissidents was Aung San Suu Kyi. She rose to prominence by establishing a coalition party that opposed the military regime. In speeches and interviews she challenged the SLORC’s record, characterizing it as one of economic and social degeneration. She also protested the SLORC’s repressive laws and actions. Because of her actions, the government placed her under house arrest in 1989.

Multiparty elections were held in May 1990, but the military refused to transfer power to the winning National League for Democracy (NLD). It announced in September 1990 that it intended to remain in power for 5 to 10 more years.

Myanmar Under the SLORC In the early 1990s, the plight of dissident Aung San Suu Kyi began receiving worldwide attention. In 1991 she was awarded the 1990 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament. On 10 December 1991, Aung San Suu Kyi’s son, Alexander, accepted the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize on her behalf.

Another type of human rights violation in Myanmar that drew international attention was forced labor. It was reported that the SLORC used forced labor on tourist projects such as the reconstruction of the gold palace in Mandalay. Of Mandalay’s 500,000 residents, each family had to contribute at least three days of free labor each month. The work lasted from dawn until evening and was so strenuous that it required several days of recovery. Forced labor also was used on many building projects and to carry supplies and munitions into malaria-infested areas for the military. Prison inmates were required to work every day. Many military families could be exempted, as could any family that agreed to pay a monthly fine of $6, about a week’s wages for some families. Muslim refugees who fled Myanmar said that Muslims had to pay two to three times as much as others to escape labor.

Ever since Myanmar received its independence in 1948, ethnic minorities have fought for autonomy. However, in 1991 the 600-member Palaung State Liberation Army and the 500-member Pa-O National Army rebel group signed truce agreements with SLORC, which served as models for settlements with other rebels. The Karens, Mons, and Karenni along the Thai border began talks with the military regime in early 1994. Eventually, the junta negotiated separate peace treaties with each rebel group.

The international community continues to debate the most constructive approach to dealing with Myanmar. Many Asian countries argue that maintaining relations with Myanmar is more productive than isolating it. However, the United States has maintained a hard-line isolationist policy toward Myanmar to press for advancement of democracy and human rights. The U.S. government still refers to Myanmar as Burma, the country’s name prior to the military takeover.

In July 1995, the SLORC released dissident Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest. She had been detained for six years. Most observers saw the SLORC’s action as an attempt to gain international favor, not as a sign that the group was ready to loosen its grip on the country. Upon her release, Suu Kyi confirmed her commitment to democracy. The NLD planned to draft its own version of the constitution and Suu Kyi planned pro-democracy rallies. Following mass student protests in December 1996, the government blamed Suu Kyi and returned her to house arrest. She was released again in July 1997.

In 1999, Suu Kyi’s terminally ill British husband was denied a visa to see her a final time. The junta stated that she was free to leave Myanmar, but the implication was that she would not be permitted back. Her husband died on 27 March. Suu Kyi was again placed under house detention in September 2000; she was released in May 2002 and toured the country, speaking out in support of democratization. She urged the international community in August to keep economic sanctions against the junta (renamed as the State Peace and Development Council–SPDC from the SLORC in 1997) in place until a democratic dialogue reached a more meaningful stage. During 2001, more than 200

BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Name: Than Shwe

Position: Prime minister of a military regime

Took Office: 23 April 1992

Birthplace: Kyaukse, central Myanmar (Burma)

Birthdate: 1933

Of interest: Shwe went to work as a post office clerk after graduating high school.

NLD activists were released from detention; in November 2002, another 115 political prisoners were released. Suu Kyi was once again arrested in May 2003 and as of August 2006, remained under house arrest.

The Myanmar government has come under considerable international criticism for its involvement in the country’s massive drug trade. Myanmar is one of the world’s largest producers of opium and heroin, and is a major producer of methamphetamines. By September 2001, Myanmar pledged to eliminate drug trade in the Golden Triangle by 2005.

On 5 December 2002, General Ne Win died under house arrest. He had been arrested in March for plotting a coup, or forced takeover, against the military regime. Ne Win’s three grandsons and son-in-law remain in jail, sentenced to death for their roles in the alleged coup.

Myanmar was scheduled to chair the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) for 2006. In July 2005, the government announced that it would give up the chairmanship. The government took this action after the international community called for Myanmar to be deprived of the honor because of ongoing human rights violations in the county.

13 Government

A military coup in September 1988 brought the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) to power. SLORC abolished the previous government and the country was placed under martial law. On 18 September 1988, the official title of the state was changed to Myanmar Naing Ngan. SLORC was renamed as the State Peace and Development Council or SPDC in 1997. The SPDC directs, supervises, and coordinates the work of the central and local government institutions.

In a multiparty election held 27 May 1990, the National League for Democracy (NLD) received 87.7% of the total vote and took 392 of the 447 contested seats. However, SLORC refused to hand over power to the NLD, instead insisting that a new constitution be drafted and approved by SLORC prior to the transfer of power.

A drastic step was taken on 6 November 2005 when government ministries were compelled to leave Yangon for a new capital still under construction at Pyinmana in the mountains 400 kilometers (248.5 miles) north of Yangon. The motives for such a large-scale mass relocation were unclear.

Myanmar comprises seven states and seven divisions, further divided into 317 townships, which include villages and towns.

14 Political Parties

With the military takeover of September 1988, the ruling Burma Socialist Program Party was formally abolished and all governing authority was concentrated in the hands of the military, or the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). On 24 September 1988, the BSPP was reborn as the National Unity Party (NUP), inheriting the buildings and machinery of the old BSPP.

On 24 September 1988, the National League for Democracy (NLD), a coalition party, was formed in opposition to the military regime. The NLD won the 27 May 1990 elections by a landslide, electing 392 candidates; the NUP took 10 seats. NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest from July 1989 to July 1995, and again from 2 September 2000 to 6 May 2002. She was arrested again in May 2003. The Democratic Alliance of Burma (DAB) is a coalition of 21 ethnic minorities and political dissident groups formed in 1988.

By March 1993 all but seven political parties had been deregistered by SLORC. Other political or pressure groups were the Kachin Independence Army (KIA), the United Wa State Army (UWSA), the Karen National Union (KNU), and several Shan factions, including the Mong Tai Army (MTA).

In 1997, the SLORC renamed itself the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).

15 Judicial System

The British-style judicial system with which Myanmar began its independence, including a supreme court, was disbanded by the Revolutionary Council. Military tribunals which enforced orders issued by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) were abolished in 1992. Ordinary courts now handle such cases, with heavy military influence. The supreme court appoints judges after approval by the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC, renamed from the SLORC in 1997). The judiciary is not independent.

Yearly Growth Rate

This economic indicator tells by what percent the economy has increased or decreased when compared with the previous year.

16 Armed Forces

The armed forces play a major role in Myanmar’s politics and administration; senior members of the government are officers who govern under martial law.

Myanmar’s armed forces totaled an estimated 428,000 in 2005 including the paramilitary people’s militia and people’s police force. Military service for both men and women is compulsory. The army, with 350,000 personnel, is organized in infantry battalions chiefly for internal security duties. The navy has 13,000 members, and the air force 12,000. The paramilitary People’s Militia and People’s Police Force total 35,000 and 72,000 personnel, respectively. Military expenditures were $6.85 billion in 2005.

17 Economy

SLORC, the military regime which took over Myanmar in 1988, proclaimed a market-oriented economic policy and invited foreign investment. Two trends have been apparent in the government’s economic policies: the capture of revenues from short-term, quick-turnover sources such as hardwoods, prospecting rights, and taxes on profits from illegal sources; and spending patterns that emphasize defense spending and acquisition of armaments.

Due to Myanmar’s inability to stop the flow of drugs from its sector of the Golden Triangle, in February 1989 the United States removed Myanmar from a list of countries eligible to receive aid except for combating the drug trade. Myanmar is the world’s second-largest supplier of illegal opiates. Myanmar is also the primary source of amphetamine-type drugs in Asia, producing millions of tablets each year. Large quantities of smuggled consumer goods are sold in Myanmar’s cities, where the black market thrives.

Myanmar receives no aid from U.S. or European Union (EU) programs and aid from Japan is run at a maintenance level. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) extend no credit to Myanmar.

Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, contributing 57% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2005 and employing about 70% of the labor force.

18 Income

In 2005, the gross domestic product (GDP) was $76.2 billion, or about $1,800 per person.

Components of the Economy

This pie chart shows how much of the country’s economy is devoted to agriculture (including forestry, hunting, and fishing), industry, or services.

The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.8%. The average inflation rate in 2002 was18%.

19 Industry

Industry is geared largely to the processing of agricultural, mineral, and forest products. Principal industrial products are cement, steel, bricks and tiles, fertilizers, and processed foods. Consumer goods that were imported before 1962 and are now manufactured domestically include blankets, paper, glass products, bicycles, and water pumps. Other major consumer items manufactured are aluminum ware, jute and cotton cloth, pharmaceuticals, beverages, matches, and cigarettes. The assembly of televisions and motor vehicles is a recent development in Myanmar’s industry.

In 2005, industry accounted for 8% of gross domestic product (GDP).

In 2006, Myanmar had three state-owned oil refineries. The $1.2 billion natural gas pipeline connecting to Thailand began operations in 1999, and plans for a $1 billion Myanmar-Bangladesh-India gas pipeline were underway in 2006.

20 Labor

In 2005, Myanmar’s civilian labor force was estimated at 27,750,000. An estimated 70% are engaged in agriculture, primarily rice cultivation, while industry accounts for 7% and services 23%. The unemployment rate was estimated at 5% in 2005.

No trade union or independent labor movement activity has occurred since 1988. Forced labor is frequently used by the military for building projects.

While the official minimum working age is 13, the presence of child labor is obvious in both rural and urban areas. Most children must work to help support their families.

Only government workers and employees of a few traditional industries are covered by a minimum wage. As of 2005, salaried public employees had a minimum wage of $0.13 per day for an eight-hour workday, which did not support a worker and a family with a decent standard of living. A skilled factory worker can earn around $3.00 a day.

21 Agriculture

About 16% of the land is under cultivation. Agriculture generates roughly 70% of employment and 57% of the recorded GDP.

Rice is the most important agricultural product. Rice production totaled 9.57 million tons in 2004/05. In 2004, other crops included 6,368,000 tons of sugarcane, 715,000 tons of groundnuts, 600,000 tons of corn, and 550,000 tons of sesame. During the mid-1990s, Myanmar

Yearly Balance of Trade

The balance of trade is the difference between what a country sells to other countries (its exports) and what it buys (its imports). If a country imports more than it exports, it has a negative balance of trade (a trade deficit). If exports exceed imports there is a positive balance of trade (a trade surplus).

was the world’s largest producer of opium and heroin. In 2003, opium poppy production was estimated at 484 tons, down from 2,560 tons in 1996.

22 Domesticated Animals

Zebu cattle and water buffalo are raised as draft animals and for the sale of hides. The output of such hides was 24,000 tons in 2005. Hogs and poultry are found in virtually every village. In 2005, Myanmar had an estimated 12 million head of cattle, 5.2 million hogs, 2.7 million water buffalo, 1.8 million goats, 492,000 sheep, 88 million chickens, and 8 million ducks. Other products included 632,000 tons of meat, 677,000 tons of milk (80% cow, 20% buffalo), and 1,452,000 tons of eggs.

23 Fishing

Fishing is the most significant nonagricultural source of income in Myanmar. Fish, which supply the main protein element in the Myanma diet, generally are dried and salted before they are sold at market. Traditionally, the Myanma preferred fish from fresh or brackish water, but saltwater fishing has increased in recent years. The total fish catch in 2003 was 1,606,252 tons (67% saltwater, 23% freshwater). Exports of fish products were valued at $142.6 million.

24 Forestry

Forests and woodland cover nearly half the country. Myanmar has a major share of the world’s teak reserves, which constitute about one-third of the nation’s forested area. As the world’s leading exporter of teak, Myanmar supplies about 75% of the world market. In 2004, teak log production totaled 2.21 million cubic meters (78.1 million cubic feet). A special teak plantation program begun in 1998 will provide a sustainable production of 1.8 million cubic meters (63.5 million cubic feet) per year.

Roundwood production in 2004 totaled 38.9 million cubic meters (1.4 billion cubic feet). Other forest products include lac, catechu resin, and bamboo. In 2004, forest product exports were valued at $401.1 million.

25 Mining

With the exception of precious gemstones, mineral production is small and mostly for domestic use. Leading products include copper, tin, tungsten, iron, construction materials, and fertilizer. Production for 2003 included 27,900 tons of copper (metal content), 210 tons of tin, 30 tons of tungsten, 11 million kilograms (24.25 million pounds) of jade, and 4.7million carats of spinel rubies and sapphires. Industrial mineral production included hydraulic cement, fire clay, gypsum, limestone, salt, sand and gravel, and silica sand. Lead, zinc, silver, copper, nickel, and cobalt were produced at the Bawdwin mine in Namtu.

26 Foreign Trade

Myanmar’s main legal exports are rice, wood products, beans, and garments. Jade, gems, minerals, and rare animals are exported from border areas not under control of the government. Illegal drugs also are a major export, the value of which may be worth as much as all the legal exports combined. Consumer goods, diesel fuel, and other products are smuggled in from Thailand, China, Malaysia, and India.

In 2004, Myanmar’s primary export partners were (in order): Thailand, India, China, and Japan. That year, the primary import partners were China, Singapore, Thailand, South Korea, and Malaysia.

27 Energy and Power

Myanmar’s production of crude oil in 2002 averaged 15,000 barrels per day, with imports of crude averaging 8,120 barrels per day. Refined petroleum product production that year averaged 21,500 barrels per day, with demand for refined oil products at 34,500 barrels per day.

Natural gas output in 2002 came to 8.8 billion cubic meters (310 billion cubic feet). Coal production in 2002 totaled 130,000 tons.

Production of electricity totaled 6.3nillion kilowatt hours in 2002, of which thermal plants provided about 65% and hydroelectric power roughly 35%. Electric power capacity rose to 1,537,000 kilowatts in 2002, but power supply remained inadequate to meet the country’s needs, and shortages were on the rise across the country.

28 Social Development

Although considerable advances have been made in health services, Myanmar’s goal of establishing a welfare state has been limited by lack of public funds. In 1956, the government inaugurated a social security program that compensates workers for wage losses arising from sickness, injury, and maternity leave, provides free medical care, and establishes survivors’ benefits. The program is funded by contributions from employers, employees, and the government. As of yet, Myanmar does not have unemployment insurance, but workers are entitled to old-age pensions.

Women have a high status in Myanmar’s society and economic life. They may retain their maiden name after marriage, may obtain divorces without undue difficulty, and enjoy equal property and inheritance rights with men. However, women often do not receive equal pay for equal work.

Myanmar’s military government continues to engage in human rights abuses. There also is widespread mistreatment of prisoners. Arrests are often made arbitrarily and many detainees are not allowed contact with the outside world.

Selected Social Indicators

The statistics below are the most recent estimates available as of 2006. For comparison purposes, data for the United States and averages for low-income countries and high-income countries are also given. About 15% of the world’s 6.5 billion people live in high-income countries, while 37% live in low-income countries.

Indicator	Myanmar	Low-income countries	High-income countries	United States
sources: World Bank. World Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2006; Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2006; World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
Per capita gross national income (GNI)*	$1,700	$2,258	$31,009	$39,820
Population growth rate	1.5%	2%	0.8%	1.2%
People per square kilometer of land	76	80	30	32
Life expectancy in years: male	58	58	76	75
female	64	60	82	80
Number of physicians per 1,000 people	0.4	0.4	3.7	2.3
Number of pupils per teacher (primary school)	33	43	16	15
Literacy rate (15 years and older)	89.9%	65%	>95%	99%
Television sets per 1,000 people	7	84	735	938
Internet users per 1,000 people	1	28	538	630
Energy consumed per capita (kg of oil equivalent)	276	501	5,410	7,843
CO² emissions per capita (metric tons)	0.16	0.85	12.97	19.92
* The GNI is the total of all goods and services produced by the residents of a country in a year. The per capita GNI is calculated by dividing a country’s GNI by its population and adjusting for relative purchasing power.
n.a.: data not available >: greater than <: less than

29 Health

As of 2004, there were an estimated 40 doctors, 27 nurses, 2 dentists, and 22 midwives per 100,000 people.

Smallpox and plague have been virtually eliminated as health hazards and programs are under way to eradicate malaria and tuberculosis. However, gastrointestinal diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, and cholera remain prevalent. Another serious health problem is drug addiction.

In 2005, average life expectancy was 60.7 years. As of 2004, there were approximately 330,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 20,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

30 Housing

Prewar housing in Myanmar compared favorably with that in other Southeast Asian nations, but housing conditions have deteriorated. Urban dwellings are overcrowded and often unsafe. The government has been working on projects to reduce homelessness and the high percentage of squatter communities in many areas by building apartment-style structures to replace hut dwellings.

31 Education

Education is generally free. Primary education is compulsory for five years. It is estimated that about 73.2% of all students complete their primary education. The pupil-teacher ratio at the

primary level was 33 to 1 in 2003. Primary education is followed by four years of middle school and two years of high school or technical school. Generally, Burmese is the language of instruction, and English is taught in the secondary schools; however, increasingly English is the medium of instruction in the universities.

Postsecondary institutions include 18 teacher-training colleges, 6 agricultural institutes, 8 technical institutes, and 35 universities and colleges. The 2004 adult literacy rate was estimated at 89.9%, with 93.7% for men and 86.2% for women. However, international observers question this figure, estimating that literacy rates are much lower since up to 40% of children in rural areas do not enroll in school and those who do drop out early.

32 Media

In 2003, there were an estimated seven mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 102,000 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. That same year, there was approximately one mobile phone in use for every 1,000 people. The government provides the only radio and television transmissions through Radio Myanmar and TV-Myanmar. As of 2003, there were 66 radios and 7 televisions in use per 1,000 population. That same year there were 5.6 personal computers for every 1,000 people and one of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

The government claims to uphold freedom of the press, but there are no privately owned newspapers, and the print media are government-controlled. Chinese- and Indian-language newspapers are not allowed by the government, but two daily papers are published in English. Leading newspapers in 1999 included the Kyemon (circulation, 100,000), Myanma Alin (circulation, 400,000), and New Light of Myanmar (circulation, 14,000).

33 Tourism and Recreation

Since the inception of military rule in 1988, tourism declined sharply, but has risen since 1990. In 2003, there were 206,000 tourist arrivals. There were 17,039 rooms with a total of about 34,078 bed-places, at 20% occupancy. Principal attractions include palaces and Buddhist temples and shrines. River cruises are also popular.

34 Famous Myanma

U Nu (Thakin Nu, 1907–1995) was independent Myanmar’s first premier (1948–62) and shares fame as the founder of modern Myanmar with Aung San (1916–1947), called the Father of the Burmese Revolution. Ne Win (Maung Shu Maung, 1911–2002) became premier in March 1962 and was president from 1974 to 1981. U Thant (1909–1974) served as UN secretary-general from 1961 through 1971.

Human rights activist Aung San Suu Kyi (b.1946) was awarded the 1990 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought by the European Parliament, the 1990 Thorolf Rafto Human Rights Prize by Norway, and the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize. Anawrahta, who founded the early Burmese kingdom of Pagan in 1044 and established Hinayana Buddhism as the official religion, is a great figure in Burmese history, as are the Toungoo warrior-king Bayinnaung (reigned 1551–81) and Alaungpaya (reigned 1752–60), who established the dynasty that ruled Myanmar until 1886.

Great writers of the Burmese past include Bhikkhu Ratthasara, author of the poem Hatthipala Pyo, on the life of Gautama Buddha; Nawedegyi and Natshinnaung, poets of the Toungoo dynasties; and Binnyadala, who wrote of the long struggles of the Burmese king of Ava. U Ba Nyan and U Ba Zaw are well-known painters of the 1920s who introduced Western-style art into Myanmar.