Cartography
Cartography
Similarities to Art . Maps preserved from ancient Egypt attest to the ancient interest in recording and interpreting the world. Egyptian maps described topography, architecture, the mythological world, and the whole cosmos. The scholar James A. Harrell has isolated three characteristics of these maps that associate them with the conventions of
Egyptian art in general; for example, making a picture of a space rather than an actual plan. One map also can combine a bird’s-eye view with profiles and plan-views simultaneously. Thus, a map resembles in concept an Egyptian rendering of a human body. It also shows multiple perspectives within one drawing, such as a whole eye within a profiled face. Finally, scale was not recorded in the drawing but rather through written annotations. A note added to the map tells the actual distance between two places. This connection between importance and size of representation was also reflected in Egyptian art.
Topographic Maps . The Egyptians represented topography as early as the Naqada I period (circa 4000-3600 b.c.e.) and continued into the New Kingdom (circa 1539-1075 b.c.e.). For example, early pots depicted rivers, mountains, and deserts. Topographical maps of battles are also known from the New Kingdom. One map detailed the terrain of Qadesh, where a battle was fought between the forces of Ramesses II (circa 1279-1213 b.c.e.) and the Hittite king Muwatallis. The maps included the Orontes River, its tributary, and the position of towns, as well as represented Egyptian and Hittite troop positions. This map was reproduced on temple walls in both Luxor and Karnak.
Quarry Guide . One known topographical map might have been used to guide an expedition through the Wadi Hammamat in the Eastern Desert. It was discovered in Deir el Medina, the workman’s village near the Valley of the Kings. Amennakhte, son of Ipuy, was the scribe who made it during the reign of Ramesses IV (1156-1150 b.c.e.). The Egyptians highly prized bekhen-stone (greywacke) for its hardness and beauty when polished. The map depicted the location of the bekhen-stone quarry, its position relative to the Wadi Hammamat, and its relationship with the Wadi Atalla and Wadi Sid. Amennakhte also delineated the hills surrounding the quarry, a gold mine in the Wadi, and a settlement. Annotations identified place-names, distances between important points, and routes. The map is oriented to the south, the source of the Nile, and recorded geological features. It used different colors to represent distinct types of stone in the mountains and even various gravels found on the Wadi floor. This representation parallels modern maps in its ambitions to present a complete picture of one area. It is impossible to know whether other such maps existed in ancient times since this example is the only one known to have survived.
Architectural Plans . The Egyptians created architectural plans as early as the Old Kingdom (circa 2675-2130 b.c.e.), although some of the most impressive ones were made in the New Kingdom (circa 1539-1075 b.c.e.). Among them were elaborate carved plans on tomb walls and ink sketches on limestone chips. An architectural plan of Akhenaten’s palace buildings and gardens was carved in relief in the tomb of Meryre I at Amarna (circa 1353-1336 b.c.e.). This plan combines bird’s-eye views of buildings with profiles of gates and cross sections of storage facilities. Each feature was presented from the perspective most likely to make it clear. Ink-sketch plans of tombs are also known from Dynasty 20 (circa 1190-1075 b.c.e.). Amennakhte, son of Ipuy, prepared a sketch on papyrus of Ramesses IV’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings. An ink sketch on limestone represented the plan of Ramesses IX’s tomb. These plans resemble the map of the Wadi Hammamat in concept—drawn distances and the shapes of features are approximate, while annotations were used to convey precise distances.
Mythological and Cosmological Maps . The Egyptians represented the universe in mythological and cosmological maps. Mythological maps depicted the Land of the Dead and were drawn on coffins and papyrus. They depicted the twelve gates leading to the entrance of the Land of the Dead and also the guardian demons at each gate. Maps included in the Book of the Two Ways also recorded the spells that allowed the deceased to pass through the gates, as well as the rivers, canals, and fields in the idealized Land of the Dead. Cosmological maps showed the world according to Egyptian conceptions of the universe and were painted on coffins and tomb walls. They show the sky goddess Nut stretched above the air god Shu and the earth god Geb. In the central space is a ring with the names of the Egyptian nomes (provinces) inside it. Outside this ring are the names of foreign countries.
Sources
James A. Harrell and V. Max Brown, “The Oldest Surviving Topographical Map from Ancient Egypt (Turin 1879, 1899 and 1969),” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 29 (1992): 81-105.
A. F. Shore, “Egyptian Cartography,” in The History of Cartography, volume 1, edited by J. B. Harley and D. Woodward (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 117–129.