SWAZILAND

Kingdom of Swaziland

CAPITAL: Mbabane (administrative and judicial); Lobamba (royal and parliamentary)

FLAG: Blue, yellow, crimson, yellow, and blue stripes with the shield and spears of the Emasotsha regiment superimposed on the crimson stripe.

ANTHEM: National Anthem, beginning "O God, bestower of the blessings of the Swazi."

MONETARY UNIT: The lilangeni (pl. emalangeni; e) of 100 cents is a paper currency equal in value to the South African rand, which also is legal tender. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents, 1 lilangeni, and notes of 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 emalangeni. e1 = $0.16129 (or $1 = e6.2) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system replaced imperial weights and measures in September 1969.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Commonwealth Day, 2nd Monday in March; National Flag Day, 25 April; Birthday of King Sobhuza II, 22 July; Umhlanga (Reed Dance) Day, last Monday in August; Somhlolo (Independence) Day, 6 September; UN Day, 24 October; Christmas Day, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter Monday, Ascension, and the Incwala Ceremony.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

A landlocked country in southern Africa, Swaziland has an area of 17,363 sq km (6,704 sq mi), extending 176 km (109 mi) n–s and 135 km (84 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Swaziland is slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey. It is bounded by Mozambique on the ne and by the Republic of South Africa (including the homelands) on the se, s, w, and n, with a total boundary length of 535 km (332 mi).

Swaziland's capital city, Mbabane, is located in the northwest part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

The country is divided west-to-east into four well defined regions, the first three being of roughly equal breadth. The four regions extend north and south and are known as the high, middle, and low veld, and the Lebombo plain and escarpment. The high veld on the west has an average altitude of 1,050 m to 1,200 m (3445 to 3,937 ft). The middle veld averages about 450 to 600 m (1,476 to 1,969 ft), and the low or bush veld less than 300 m (984 ft). The Lebombo plain, at an average height of 610 m (2,000 ft), extends to the Lebombo escarpment, which is part of the Lebombo Mountains in the east. The entire country is traversed by rivers or streams, making it one of the best watered areas in southern Africa. The longest river is the Great Usutu, which stretches roughly from west to east across the center of the country for a total distance of 217 km (135 mi).

CLIMATE

The high veld has a humid near-temperate climate with about 140 cm (55 in) of mean annual rainfall. The middle veld is subtropical and somewhat drier, with about 85 cm (33 in) of annual rainfall; the low veld, almost tropical, is subhumid, receiving about 60 cm (24 in) of rain in an average year. Rainfall tends to be concentrated in a few violent storms in the summer (October–March). Temperatures range from as low as -3°c (27°f) in winter in the highlands to as high as 42°c (108°f) in summer in the lowlands. At Mbabane, temperatures average 20°c (68°f) in January and 12°c (54°f) in July.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Grassland, savanna, mixed bush, and scrub cover most of Swaziland. There is some forest in the highlands. Flora include aloes, orchids, and begonias. Large indigenous mammals include the blue wildebeest, kudu, impala, zebra, waterbuck, and hippopotamus; however, wildlife has become very scarce outside the protected areas. Crocodiles live in the lowland rivers. Bird life is plentiful and includes the European stork, sacred ibis, and gray heron.

ENVIRONMENT

The chief environmental problem is soil erosion and degradation, particularly because of overgrazing. Population growth and the increased demand for fuel has threatened the country's forests, and the resulting deforestation has contributed to the loss of valuable soil. Swaziland has at least four protected areas for wildlife—two wildlife sanctuaries and two nature reserves—totaling 40,045 ha (98,953 acres), all in the northern half of the country. As of 2003, 3.5% of the nation's total land area was protected.

Another significant environmental problem in Swaziland is air pollution from transportation vehicles and emissions from other countries in the area. Water pollution from industrial and agricultural sources is also a problem, as well as contamination by untreated sewage, which contributes to the spread of life-threatening diseases.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 6 types of mammals, 6 species of birds, and 11 species of plants. Burchell's zebra has become extinct. Threatened marine species include the Baltic sturgeon, Danube salmon, and marsh snail. The cheetah and the cape vulture are listed among the vulnerable species.

POPULATION

The population of Swaziland in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 1,138,000, which placed it at number 150 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 43% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 93 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 0.3%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The projected population for the year 2025 was 1,009,000. The population density was 66 per sq km (170 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 25% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 0.98%. The administrative capital, Mbabane, had a population of 70,000 in that year.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Swaziland, with the number of AIDS orphans growing rapidly as of 2006. The UN estimated that 33.7% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

Over the years, there has been a noticeable drift of educated Africans, many of whom have acquired British citizenship, from South Africa to Swaziland. Conversely, many itinerant asylum seekers were making a practice of using Swaziland as a stepping stone to gain access to South Africa in 1999. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 42,000. As of 2004, Swaziland harbored some 1,010 refugees and asylum seekers, mainly from the Great Lakes region. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated zero per 1,000 population, compared to -10.8 per 1,000 in 1990. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The indigenous African population in Swaziland constitutes 97% of the total populace and comprises more than 70 clans, of which the Nkosi Dlamini, the royal clan, is dominant. Europeans make up the remaining 3%.

LANGUAGES

English and Siswati, which is spoken by almost all Swazi, are the official languages. Government business is conducted in English.

RELIGIONS

Most of the population is Christian, with about 40% of the population affiliated with the Zionist Church, professing a blend of Christianity and indigenous ancestral worship. About 20% of the population are Roman Catholic. Other Christian denominations include Anglicans, Methodists, and Mormons (the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints). About 10% of the population are Muslims and there are small groups of Jews and Baha'is. Muslims and Baha'is are generally located in urban areas. The constitution does not specifically guarantee religious freedom, but that right is generally respected by the government and relations between religious groups are amicable.

TRANSPORTATION

The country had 3,800 km (2,364 mi) of roads in 2002, of which at least 1,064 km (662 mi) were paved. A highway runs between the southern boundary with South Africa and the eastern boundary with Mozambique. There were 30,000 passenger cars and 9,000 commercial vehicles in use in 1995. As of 2004, there were 301 km (187 mi) of railway in the country, all of it narrow gauge, and which links iron mines at Ngwenya with the Mozambique Railway and the port of Maputo in Mozambique. In the 1970s, a 94-km (58-mi) southern spur was constructed to the South African border. A 115-km (71-mi) northern spur to the South African border was completed in 1986. Airports numbered an estimated 18 in 2004, only one of which had a paved runway (as of 2005). Matsapa Airport, near Manzini, provides service—via Royal Swazi National Airways—to South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Kenya, and Tanzania. In all, about 89,500 passengers were carried on scheduled international and domestic flights in 2003 (the latest year for which data was available).

HISTORY

Like other parts of southern Africa, Swaziland was originally occupied by hunting and gathering peoples known as Bushmen. In the 16th century, according to tradition, Bantu-speaking peoples advanced southwest to what is now Mozambique. During the migration, these groups disintegrated to form the various ethnic groups of southern Africa. In fact, however, the Swazi do not appear to have broken away from the main body of the Bantu until the middle of the 18th century. The Swazi emerged as a distinct ethnic group at the beginning of the 19th century and were in constant conflict with the Zulu; they moved gradually northward and made their first formal contact with the British in the 1840s, when their ruler, Mswati II, applied to the British for help against the Zulu. The British succeeded in improving relations between the two ethnic groups.

About this time, the first Europeans came to Swaziland to settle. The independence of Swaziland was guaranteed by the British and Transvaal governments in 1881 and 1884, but owing to the excessive number of concessions (including land, grazing, and mineral rights) granted to European entrepreneurs by Mbandzeni (the king) during the 1880s, the United Kingdom decided some form of control was necessary. In 1890, a provisional government was established, representing the Swazi, the British, and the Transvaal. From 1894 to 1899, the Transvaal government undertook the protection and administration of Swaziland. After the South African (Boer) War of 1899–1902, the administration of Swaziland was transferred to the British governor of the Transvaal. An order in council established the relationship between the Swazi and the United Kingdom in 1903, providing the basic authority under which British administration was conducted for 60 years.

Independence

Responsibility for Swaziland was transferred in 1907 to the high commissioner for South Africa. An elected European Advisory Council was constituted in 1921. By the provisions of the Native Administration Proclamation of 1941, the position of the ngwenyama (paramount chief) as native authority was recognized. In 1963, constitutional discussions looking toward independence were opened in London. The following year, elections for a legislative council were held under the country's first constitution. After further constitutional talks, held in London in 1965, Swaziland became an independent nation within the Commonwealth on 6 September 1968.

On 12 April 1973, King Sobhuza II, who had been head of the Swazi nation since 1921, announced that the constitution had been repealed and that he had assumed supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers. In 1979, a new parliament was chosen, partly through indirect elections and partly through royal appointment.

After Sobhuza died in 1982, a prolonged power struggle took place. At first his senior wife, Queen Mother Dzeliwe, became head of state and regent. Members of the Liqoqo, the king's advisory council, seized effective power and appointed a new "Queen Regent" in August 1983 (Ntombi, one of Sobhuza's other wives). At that time it was announced that Makhosetive, the 15-year-old son of Ntombi and one of Sobhuza's 67 sons, would ascend the throne upon reaching adulthood. He was crowned King Mswati III on 25 April 1986. The intrigues continued until the new king approved the demotion of the Liqoqo back to its advisory status. He has ruled through his prime minister and cabinet.

In 1982, South Africa and Swaziland secretly signed a security agreement. Under pressure from South Africa, Swaziland arrested and deported members of the African National Congress, the leading black nationalist group in South Africa. On three different occasions in late 1985 and 1986, South African commando squads conducted raids in Swaziland, killing a number of ANC members and supporters. In November 1987, a new parliament was elected and a new cabinet appointed. Obed Dlamini was the prime minister from 1989 until 1993. In September and October 1993, popular elections were held for parliament and a new prime minister, Prince Mbilini, took office, replacing Dlamini, who was defeated in the second round of voting. Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini was appointed prime minister in July 1996.

The Swaziland Federation of Trade Unions and the National Association of Civil Servants have organized strikes as a means to pressure the government for greater democratic control by the people of Swaziland. The strikes led the government to ban trade unions in 1995. The ban was later lifted but the country was again disrupted in 1996 by a general strike supported by the SFTU, which resulted in three leaders being detained, and the formation of a Constitutional Review Commission charged with the task of soliciting views from the Swazi nation as to the type of constitution preferred. The commission must meet with all the country's constituencies and submit a report to government officials.

The history of Swaziland during the early 2000s was dominated by controversy over drafting of the new constitution. In July 2005, after release of several drafts—in May 2003 and November 2004—and missed deadlines, parliament passed the Swaziland constitution. The king signed it 26 July 2005, and the new constitution entered into force January 2006. However, the constitution did not open up the political space to political parties, as civil society and human rights organizations in Swaziland and elsewhere had expected. Rather, the new constitution encoded the king's absolute governing powers into the land's grand law, reinforcing the ban on political parties and allowing human rights clauses to be suspended by the king if he finds them in conflict with some undefined "public interest".

Political, civil society, and human rights organizations, and the international community, were unanimous in their criticism of the process that resulted in the new document, calling it "palace-controlled," nontransparent, not consultative enough, and undemocratic. The constitution was written by two commissions led by the king's brothers, Prince Mangaliso Dlamini and Prince David Dlamini, who is also justice minister. The critics charge that widely publicized "consultation" meetings with traditional leaders called by King Nswati III were window dressing. They further alleged that the king's last-minute decision to channel approval of the constitution though a parliament he controlled, reversing his earlier decision to decree the constitution into law, was designed to mask a faulty process and to gain back-door legitimacy for the document. However, several attempts to challenge the process legally failed. For their part, royalists contended that democracy is a dividing force in the country, whereas the monarch is a strong unifying force. The king repeatedly asserted that the constitution enjoyed the full support of the Swazi people.

As of 2006, Swaziland acknowledged that it was grappling with a humanitarian crisis caused by the devastating HIV/AIDS pandemic. According to UNAIDS, Swaziland has the highest prevalence rates of HIV/AIDs in the world, ahead of neighboring Botswana, which made some strides against the disease. Nearly 4 in 10 adults are infected with the virus, and the rate is rising. In January 2004 the government revealed that over one in five Swazis were orphans and vulnerable children, and announced a program to pay primary school fees for 60,000 orphans, mostly children of HIV/AIDS victims. Combined with several years of equally devastating drought and famine, HIV/AIDS has significantly undermined the economy, which was already dependent on the regional giant South Africa. Unemployment was nearly 34% and some 70% of the population were living below the UN poverty line of a dollar a day.

In the midst of such daunting challenges, King Mswati III often came under heavy local and international criticism for lavish living, including luxury cars and mansions for his ten wives and two fiancés.

GOVERNMENT

Swaziland was a constitutional monarchy until King Sobhuza II repealed the constitution in 1973 and assumed absolute power through a state of emergency decree, which was still in force as of 2006. The king then ruled the country as king-in-council, on the advice of his former cabinet and two traditional Swazi councils, one consisting of all the chiefs and other notables, the other of the king, the queen mother, and (in theory) all adult males.

A constitution was promulgated in 1978. In 1979, a new parliament was created with a House of Assembly consisting of 50 members, 40 of whom were chosen by indirect election and 10 appointed by the crown; the 20-member Senate had 10 members chosen by indirect election and 10 appointed by the crown. To become law, legislation passed by parliament must be approved by the crown. The cabinet is presided over by a prime minister appointed by the crown from among the members of parliament.

In response to popular moves calling for reform, King Mswati III appointed several commissions to review the tinkhundla (local government) system. In July 1992, the second Tinkhundla Review Commission (popularly called Vusela II) reported to the king. Government accepted its main recommendations—increase tinkhundla centers, allow direct representation in parliament, and institute a secret ballot. Opposition parties complained that Vusela II did not consult a broad range of Swazis and that the reforms did not address the issue of the legality of political parties. The king followed the Vusela II recommendations, rejected the creation of a multiparty system and, on 21 August 1993, the electoral process got started with nomination of candidates. On 25 September primary elections selected three candidates for each district. In October, in runoff elections, voters chose 55 members for the House of Assembly. The king appointed 10 more. A 30-member Senate was chosen, with 10 members elected by the House of Assembly and 20 appointed by the king.

After many postponements, new elections were held in 1998. Amidst tight military and police security, Swazis went to the polls on 24 October 1998 in parliamentary elections. Over 85,000 people voted, which is an estimated 40% of the voting population. During the voting, harassment by the authorities of anti-electoral groups like the Peoples United Democratic Movement (Pudemo) and the Swaziland Youth Congress (Swayoco), which were encouraging a boycott because they believed the elections would be rigged, was widespread. In addition to the 53 elected members of parliament, the king selected 10 more for the House of Assembly, 20 senators, and 10 cabinet ministers. The king also reappointed Prime Minister Sibusiso Dlamini to head the new government following the 1998 general elections.

Elections for the House of Assembly were held again on 18 October 2003. The next elections were expected October 2008. On 14 November 2003 Mswati appointed the Absolom Themba Dlamini to be prime minister. The House of Assembly had 65 seats by the 2003 election; 10 were appointed by the king and 55 elected by popular vote.

Mswati was reluctant to share power. He ruled by decree, even though the Court of Appeal has ruled against the legality of such decrees, and has often been criticized for silencing his opponents in a heavy-handed manner. The king's disregard for the rule of law triggered what the IRIN News Network calls a rule-of-law crisis. In November 2002, in protest of government's refusal to abide by Swaziland's Court of Appeals' decisions on two important rulings, the six members of the court resigned en masse and refused to hear cases for a period of two years. In a stinging report released in July 2004, the international human rights organization Amnesty International challenged Swaziland to "back up its recent commitments to international human rights standards by re-establishing the rule of law and confronting the systematic violation of civil, political, economic and social rights." Facing considerable international pressure for democratization and adherence to the rule of law, Prime Minister Absolom Dlamini made overtures to the court, which resumed hearing cases in November 2004.

The state heavily controls the media, and strictly restricts freedom of expression. For instance, the palace instituted a press ban on photographs of King Mswati's cars, following embarrassing exposure of his lavish tastes and purchase of the world's most expensive automobile, reported to have cost us$500,000. Some local prodemocracy groups have been forced to hold political demonstrations in neighboring countries after a government ban on political meetings and the brutal force with which demonstrators had been handled.

POLITICAL PARTIES

All parties are banned under the 1978 constitution, but this ban is defied by the People's United Democratic Movement (Pudemo), the Swaziland Liberation Front, the Swaziland Youth Congress, the Swaziland Communist Party, the Imbokodvo National Movement or INM, the Ngwane National Liberatory Congress (NNLC), the Swaziland National Front, and the Convention for Full Democracy in Swaziland, which operate openly. Pudemo went so far as to declare itself legal in February 1992, and to demand a national convention of all political factions and a referendum on the constitution.

In March 2005 Swaziland's High Court upheld a ban on legal recognition of opposition political parties, dealing a serious blow to Swaziland's two largest political organizations, PUDEMO and NNLC, which together with labor unions sought to challenge and forestall the new draft constitution. The pro-democracy groups argued that the constitutional process was illegal as it had gone against a 2002 decision by the Court of Appeal that ruled King Mswati III had no legal basis to decree laws. In their judgment the five justices invoked another decree, a 1973 state of emergency pronounced by Mswati's father, King Sobhuza, that gave absolute power to the monarchy and banned organized political opposition to royal rule. The 2005 constitution approved by the king and parliament maintained the ban on political parties. However, some local groups see the government's recently published policy guidelines for the creation, registration and running of nongovernmental organizations providing small openings for political activity.

Prodemocracy groups have vowed to continue testing provisions of the constitution in court. However, if government claims (denied by PUDEMO) linking PUDEMO with fire-bombing incidences of several locations in Mbabane the first week of October 2005 proved true, it would mark a militant and violent turn for antiroyalist political groups.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Swaziland is divided into four districts: Hhohho, Manzini, Shiselweni, and the largest, Lubombo. District commissioners are appointed by the central government. Mbabane, Manzini, and two other towns have municipal governments. Paralleling statutory government structure is a traditional system consisting of the king and his traditional advisors, traditional courts, and 55 tinkhundla subregional districts in which traditional chiefs are grouped.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The dual judicial system consists of a set of courts based on a western model and western law and a set of national courts which follows Swazi law and custom. The former consists of a Court of Appeals and a High Court, plus magistrate's courts in each of the four districts. The traditional courts deal with minor offenses and violations of traditional Swazi law and custom. Sentences in traditional courts are subject to appeal and review to the Court of Appeals and High Court. The king has authority to appoint a special tribunal with its own procedural rules in treason and sedition cases.

The judges of the Courts of Appeals are expatriates, usually from South Africa, and serve on a two-year renewable contract basis. Local judges serve indefinitely on good behavior.

Although the courts are supposed to be independent of executive and military control or influence, there have been poor relations between the judiciary and the government. Matters came to head in November 2002. The government refused to follow rulings of the Supreme Court of Appeals on two major cases, one declaring the kKings frequent decrees as illegal, and another ordering the return to their homes of Chief Mliba Fakudze and 200 of his followers forcibly evicted and exiled from their homes in Macetjeni by the Government in 2000, after defying an apparent palace order installing King Mswati's brother, Prince Maguga Dlamini, as their new chief. Government defiance sparked public protests, international condemnation, and resulted in the resignation of the entire bench in November 2002. Relations began to turn around in November 2004 when the Appeals Court resumed hearing cases after promises by the new Prime Minister Absolom Dlamini that the government would respect court decisions.

ARMED FORCES

The Umbutfo Swaziland Defense Force has fewer than 3,000 personnel and functions as a border patrol and an internal security force. A royal guard battalion was formed in 1982. Military expenditures for 2001–02 were $20 million or 4.8% of GDP.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Swaziland joined the United Nations on 24 September 1968 and participates in ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO, the World Bank, and the WHO. Swaziland also belongs to the ACP Group, the African Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, WTO, the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), COMESA, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and African Union. The country is also a part of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, Swaziland is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Swaziland's economy is based firmly on free market principles. The benefits of a modern economy are primarily enjoyed by the growing urban population. The majority supports itself through subsistence agriculture on rural homesteads. A relatively diversified industrial sector accounts for the largest component of the formal economy at 43% of GDP in 1999. Because of its small size, Swaziland relies heavily on the export sector, composed primarily of large firms with predominantly foreign ownership.

Surrounded almost entirely by South Africa, Swaziland's economy is heavily influenced by its dominant neighbor. The economy benefited considerably from investments that might otherwise have gone to South Africa during the period when there were international sanctions imposed on that country. On the other hand, the Swazi economy will likely suffer as a reformed South Africa attracts investment that had been going to Swaziland. In 1996, South Africa accounted for an estimated 96% of Swaziland's imports, 60% of its exports, and 50% of its foreign direct investment. In addition, remittances from Swaziland nationals working in South African mines substantially add to domestically earned income. This overwhelming presence has led some analysts to view the Swazi economy as a small, developing part of the much larger South African economy. The economy grew by 3.6% between 1988 and 1998, and by 2.6% between 2001 and 2005. Projected growth in the South African economy is expected to boost Swazi exports and in turn stimulate growth.

In 2002, the budget deficit was estimated at 4.8% of GDP. The government had taken few steps to restructure the public sector and privatize state-owned enterprises. As of 2003, the government had plans to build a new international airport, convention center, hotel, and theme park. Swaziland's membership in the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, and Namibia, allows for the virtually unimpeded exchange of goods between the countries, subject to South Africa's import control requirements.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Swaziland's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $6.2 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $5,300. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 1.8%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 4%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 15.1% of GDP, industry 49.7%, and services 35.3%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $62 million or about $56 per capita and accounted for approximately 3.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $27 million or about $24 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.4% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Swaziland totaled $1.21 billion or about $1,096 per capita based on a GDP of $1.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 3.0%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 25% of household consumption was spent on food, 9% on fuel, 6% on health care, and 13% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 66% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003, Swaziland's labor force totaled 155,700. In 2004, unemployment was estimated at 40%. There was no data available on the occupational breakdown of the country's labor force.

The law allows unions to organize and bargain collectively. About 80% of the formal private sector was organized as of 2001. The Swaziland Federation of Trade Unions is the major labor organization. There is also an employers' federation, as well as a second, breakaway labor group, the Swaziland Federation of Labor Officially. The right to strike is severely limited but unions have still engaged in strikes.

The minimum age of employment is 15, and children are rarely employed in the formal economy. Child labor is more common in the agricultural and informal economies. Swaziland has a legally mandated sliding scale of minimum wages depending on the type of work. The minimum monthly wage for a domestic servant was approximately $21 in 2001. For an unskilled worker it was $33 and for a skilled worker, $52. The government protects workers with health and safety regulations. The maximum workweek is set at 48 hours, with one day of rest.

AGRICULTURE

Swazi nation land, which comprises over 60% of the total land area, is held in trust by the crown for the Swazi people and supports about 70% of the population. Nearly half of the remaining land, which is freehold title, is owned by Europeans; the rest is owned by government or parastatal bodies. Under the traditional land tenure system, farmers till small plots, averaging less than 3 hectares (7.4 acres), but have no title or right to sell this land. The average freehold title farm, by contrast, is about 800 hectares (2,000 acres), and over 60% of freehold title cropland is irrigated. In this modern sector, agriculture expanded considerably in the early 1970s, mainly because of improved irrigation, better strains, and widespread introduction and use of fertilizers. Sugar is the most important cash crop, and corn is the staple crop. Most of the sugar produced is exported to Western Europe and North America. Output in 2004 included sugarcane, 4.5 million tons, and corn, 70,000 tons. Much of the sugar is exported to the EU, in accordance with the Sugar Protocol of the Lomé Convention; increasing amounts, however, are sold and refined domestically. Production of grapefruit in 2004 was about 37,000 tons; oranges, 36,000 tons; and pineapple, 32,000 tons. Cotton fiber production in that year was 2,000 tons. Between 1970 and 1982, 17 Rural Development Areas were established to assist traditional farmers; the program was planned to extend eventually to all Swazi nation land. The 1991/92 drought caused corn and cotton production to seriously decline; as a result the government sought emergency food assistance. By 1999, crop production was 90% of what it had been during 1989–91. During 2002–04, crop production was 5.9% lower than during 1999–2001.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Livestock raising, like agriculture, is divided into two sectors: a traditional system of grazing on communal lands for subsistence needs, and modern, commercial ranches on freehold title land. Livestock numbers recovered in 1991 from a previous drought-related selloff. In 2005, Swaziland had about 580,000 head of cattle, 274,000 goats, 27,000 sheep, 30,000 hogs, 14,000 equines, and 3.2 million chickens. The country produced 12,500 tons of beef in 2005. However, the meat processing industry has been unstable since 1988.

FISHING

By 1982, several commercial fish farms had been established and some Rural Development Areas had fish ponds. Annual production was estimated at 70 tons in 2003.

FORESTRY

Swaziland's forests (pine and eucalyptus) are among the world's largest planted forests, covering 161,000 hectares (398,000 acres), or about 9% of the land area. The total forest area in 2000 was 522,000 hectares (1,290,000 acres), or 30% of the land area. Roundwood output totaled 890,000 cu m (31.4 million cu ft) in 2004, about 70% coniferous. Sawn wood production was 102,000 cu m (3.6 million cu ft). Of Swaziland's planted forests, half supply the Usutu pulp mill, a large export earner producing unbleached wood pulp. About 3% of Swaziland's forests are in protected nature reserves and game sanctuaries.

MINING

The historic mineral sector of Swaziland has essentially collapsed. The kingdom contained the world's oldest known mine site, the Lion Cavern, at the Ngwenya iron mine, on Bomvu Ridge, northwest of Mbabane. Carbon-14 dating estimated that mining of hematite (libomvu) and specularite ochres, for cosmetic and ritual uses, took place at the site from 43,000–41,000 bc until at least 23,000 bc; the mine was closed in 1977. Mining's role in Swaziland's economy has been declining in recent years, and as of 2004, accounted for only a minor factor in its overall economy. Asbestos mining ceased in 2000, diamond mining ceased in 1996, and mining of the once-major export of iron ore stopped in the late 1970s (it reached 2.24 million tons in 1975).

In 2004, Swaziland produced an estimated 300,000 cu m of quarry stone products, and also produced brick clay, anthracite coal, pyrophyllite, and sand and gravel. Small-scale, unreported gold mining has taken place. The mining of chrysolite fiber asbestos, once the dominant source of mining revenue, employing 1,000 workers at Bulumbe, one of the world's largest asbestos mines, ceased because of declining reserves, environmental concerns, and weak markets. In 2000, the last year of asbestos production, 12,690 metric tons was produced. An estimated 1,150 metric tons of ferrovanadium was produced in 2004, up from 1,011 metric tons in 2003. Although fewer than 1,000 Swazis were directly employed in the mining sector, 1,000 people processed timber from the country's extensive pine populations for mines in South Africa, and 10,000–15,000 Swazis were employed in South African mines.

ENERGY AND POWER

Swaziland's primary fossil fuel resource is coal. The country has no proven reserves of oil or natural gas, and thus must rely on imports to meet its petroleum and natural gas needs.

As of 1 January 2005, Swaziland had no proven reserves of crude oil, or natural gas, nor any petroleum refining capacity. In 2004, the country's imports and consumption of petroleum products each averaged 3,000 barrels per day.

Coal is Swaziland's only fossil fuel resource. As of 2003, these reserves came to 229 million short tons. Demand and production for coal that year each came to 410,000 short tons.

As of 1 January 2003, Swaziland's total installed electric generating capacity totaled 0.124 million kW, of which conventional thermal capacity accounted for 0.080 million kW and hydropower accounting for 0.044 million kW of capacity. Electric power output in 2002 totaled 0.395 billion kWh, of which 0.202 billion kWh came from conventional thermal sources and 0.193 from Hydroelectric sources. Demand for electric power in 2002 totaled 1.166 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Manufacturing consists primarily of the following export-oriented industries: wood pulp production, drink processing, fruit canning (Swazican), and sugar processing. Manufacturing growth in the mid-1990s was mostly attributable to increased production of drink processing at Bromor Foods and the sugar-based production activities of the Royal Swaziland Sugar Corporation and Cadbury Confectioneries. Swaziland's three sugar mills have an annual production capacity of 500,000 tons. Usutu Pulp, Swaziland's largest employer, is the leading wood pulp processing company, with an annual capacity to produce 220,000 tons of bleached kraft pulp. Sappi, a London-based company, manages the Usutu Pulp Company. Cement, agricultural machinery, electronic equipment, and refrigerator production are also important parts of Swaziland's manufacturing sector. Textiles, footwear, gloves, office equipment, confectionery, furniture, glass, and bricks are also manufactured. Industry accounts for over 40% of GDP.

Sanctions against South Africa in the late 1980s and internal unrest inspired interest in the relocation of South African-based industry, such as Coca-Cola, in Swaziland. Reexports of South African manufactures with "Made in Swaziland" labels also appeared at that time. The industrial sector growth of the 1980s slowed in the early 1990s as stability returned to South Africa and sanctions were eliminated. Textile manufacturing, which flourished when South African tariffs were high, began to wither when they were equalized.

Creation of the Southern African Development Community further marginalized the previous industry benefits to operating in Swaziland. The privatization of state-owned industry in 2000 increased foreign interest in Swaziland's industrial sector. There are no known oil or natural gas reserves in Swaziland.

In 2005, the government announced plans to reduce the budget deficit, including a reduction in expenditure on personnel. However, the government's willingness to carry this out has been called into question by recent salary increases for the cabinet and parliamentarians. Inflation has risen, but is expected to decline in the short term as food prices come down.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The University of Swaziland, founded originally as part of the University of Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland in 1964, has faculties of agriculture and science. The Swaziland College of Technology, founded originally in 1946 as a trade school, offers courses in various fields of engineering. The Geological Survey and Mines Department, founded in 1946 at Mbabane, conducts mining research, and three other institutes conduct agricultural research. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $3 million, or 1% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

South Africa's substantial presence in Swaziland's domestic economy essentially means that South African business is the driving force in Swaziland's domestic commerce. South African employers and investors dominate certain sectors of local trade. Recently, however, the government has been working on programs to encourage local ownership and operation of small to medium-sized establishments. A few franchises have been established. Bargaining is an accepted practice in many Swazi business deals. The most developed distribution routes are those connecting to South Africa. Mbabane and Manzini are the principal commercial centers. Manufactured articles are generally available in all urban centers and are marketed mostly by South Africans.

Business hours are from 8:15 or 8:30 am to 1 pm and from 2 to 5 pm, Monday–Friday, and from 8:15 or 8:30 am to 1 pm, Saturday. Banks are open weekdays from 8:30 am to 1 pm and Saturdays from 8:30 to 11 am.

FOREIGN TRADE

Swaziland's exports have traditionally equaled a significant portion of GDP. As a result, the country's entire economy tends to mirror world commodity prices, and especially the state of the South African economy.

The value of exports has risen steadily during the 1990s; while the value of imports rose until 1997, when purchases suddenly dropped by 27%. This was probably due to the creation of the South African free trade area. Principal exports in 2003 included sugar, soft drink concentrates (a large US investment), wood pulp and lumber, cotton yarn, and fruit. Principal imports were motor vehicles, machinery, transport equipment, food, petroleum products, and chemicals.

Almost 96% of imports either originate in or transit through South Africa, and direct sales to and transshipments through South Africa account for about 72% of Swaziland's exports. About 12% of exports go to the European Union.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

A decline in long-term capital inflows, increasing government deficits, and a drop in donor assistance plagued Swaziland with a current account deficit for much of the 1990s. The goods and services account has been negative since the 1980s. Payments made by the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) to Swaziland, along with donor assistance, have offset this deficit, but these sources of revenue are threatened. Increased government deficits have also weakened the position of the current account.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Swaziland's exports was $2.007 billion while imports totaled $2.096 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $89 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Swaziland is the nation's central bank. Swaziland has been experiencing excess liquidity for some time. The nation's commercial banks were Standard Bank, First National and the Nedbank as of 1998. The Swaziland Development and Savings Bank was undergoing reconstruction in that year after a 1995 bankruptcy. The Swaziland Building Society provided mortgages for housing.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $62.2 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $189.7 million. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 5.06%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 9.5%.

The Swaziland Stock Market was established in 1990, and has only five company listings.

INSURANCE

The Swaziland Royal Insurance Corp., 41% state owned, began operating in 1974. It is majority-owned by South African insurance and reinsurance companies. The Swaziland National Provident Fund is a mandatory savings institution for employees.

PUBLIC FINANCE

In the past, the government maintained a prudent fiscal policy by avoiding large deficits and restricting public sector growth. From 1987 to 1991, large budgetary surpluses were registered, and the government began making repayments on the external debt as a net creditor to the bank. Budgetary deficits during the 1990–2000s reflected extravagant government spending on the monarchy and his family. The civil service was overstaffed as well, prompting a reduction of 5,000 employees in 2000.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Swaziland's central government took in revenues of approximately $805.6 million and had expenditures of $957.1 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$151.5 million. Total external debt was $357 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were e2,817.1 million and expenditures were e2,899.7 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$1,945 million and expenditures us$2,002 million, based on a official exchange rate for 2000 of us$1 = e1.4481 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 30.6%; defense, 7.6%; public order and safety, 8.1%; economic affairs, 21.1%; housing and community amenities, 3.6%; health, 8.0%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.6%; education, 19.8%; and social protection, 0.4%.

TAXATION

Swaziland has a progressive personal income tax system with rates ranging from 0–30%. There are no local taxes. As of the year ending 30 June 2005, the corporate income tax was levied at a rate of 30%. There are no capital gains tax, tax on dividends from companies paid to residents, or estate taxes. Swaziland has double taxation treaties with several countries including South Africa. The standard rate for the sales tax was increased from 12% to 14% in 2003, with higher rates for items like liquor (25%) and tobacco. Exempted from sales tax are fresh foodstuffs, drugs, medicines, furniture and building supplies.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Swaziland belongs to the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) with South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, and Namibia. South Africa levies and collects most of the customs, sales, and excise duties for the five member states, paying a share of the revenues to the other four. Local import duties are applied to wines, spirits, and beer. Swaziland also signed a double taxation agreement with the United States in 2000.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Cognizant of its subordinate relationship to South Africa, Swaziland has fostered an investment climate agreeable to foreign businesses. More than half of all enterprises are foreign owned or joint ventures. South African investment has consistently accounted for

around 45% of FDI. It is surmised that British entities inject the largest portion of the remaining 55%, followed by Taiwan. The United States, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany are also present. Foreign investors pay a reduced 10% corporate tax and are exempted from withholding tax on dividends for the first 10 years.

In 1997, Swaziland experienced divestment of foreign direct investment (FDI) amounting to -$15.1 million, but in 1998 annual FDI inflow rose to $151 million. Inflow was $100 million in 1999,

but there was a reverse flow of -$18.5 million in 2000. FDI inflow in 2001 was $68 million, in 2002 was $48.7 million, and in 2003 was $60.8 million. FDI grew by 10.4% in 2003 and much of this growth was through reinvested earnings. There is no policy of encouraging Swazis or Swazi business to invest abroad generally, but a handful of Swazi businesses invest abroad, primarily in South Africa.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The growth that was experienced in past years left unaffected the 60% of Swazis who live on small family farms. While manufacturing employment has risen, about half of Swazis are unemployed and actively seeking work. It is hoped that the existence of a multiracial government will prove beneficial to ongoing Swaziland-South African economic development. Economic activity weakened in the early 2000s, however, in part due to drought and closures by foreign firms. Food shortages and the spread of HIV/AIDS have exacerbated the dire conditions of high unemployment, income inequality, and poverty. A National Emergency Response Committee (NERCHA) was established in 2001 to combat HIV/AIDS.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Social services have developed slowly. A system of pensions exists for formally employed persons. Old-age, disability, and survivorship is covered. The program is funded by 5% contribution by both employees and employers. Retirement is allowed between ages 45 and 50 and pensions may be paid as a one-time lump sum or divided into installments. Private work injury insurance is mandatory for all employers.

Women do not have full legal equality with men, and a married woman is virtually a legal minor. Women may not open a bank account, buy land, or leave the country without her husband's permission. In addition, women do not automatically transmit citizenship to their children, and cannot transfer property to them either. Domestic violence is commonplace, and rape is viewed as a minor offense by most men. Women are inhibited from reported violence, and the court system is unsympathetic. Child abuse is also a widespread social problem despite legislation protecting the rights of children.

There are continued reports of the use of excessive force by police, and torture during interrogation. The law does not provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government restricts these activities. However, human rights organizations are permitted to operate.

HEALTH

Major health problems include bilharzia, typhoid, tapeworm, gastroenteritis, malaria, kwashiorkor, and pellagra. In 2004, there were an estimated 18 physicians, 2 dentists, 4 pharmacists, and 320 nurses per 100,000 people. Traditional healers are still consulted by over 80% of the population. Only about 43% of the population has access to safe water, and 36% has adequate sanitation. About 56% of the population had access to health care services.

About 27% of married women used contraceptives. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 39.6 and 23.2 per 1,000 people. In 2005, average life expectancy was 33.22 years, the lowest in the world. The infant mortality rate was 72.92 per 1,000 live births. The immunization rates for children under one year of age were as follows: diphtheria and pertussis, 96%; polio, 96%; measles, 94%; tuberculosis, 100%; and tetanus, 75%.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 38.80 per 100 adults in 2003, the highest rate in the world. As of 2004, there were approximately 220,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 17,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

The search for jobs in urban settings has caused a housing shortage in these areas. Several squatter settlements have developed, accounting for as much as half of annual shelter production in cities. It has been estimated that about 60% of the urban population resides in temporary shelters, and that number grows as more and more households are unable to afford the high cost of home ownership. In response, the government has been working with international programs, such as the World Bank, to create and improve urban housing. In 2001, the Swaziland National Housing Board provided for over 1,000 rental units and 500 units for ownership to low- and middle-income families.

EDUCATION

The majority of primary and secondary schools are run by missions with grants from the government. Children go through seven years of primary and five years of secondary schooling (in three and two-year cycles). Schooling is not compulsory, and nominal fees are charged to parents. The academic year runs from August to May.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 75% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 32% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 75% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 31:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 16:1.

Higher education is provided by the University of Swaziland and the Swaziland College of Technology. In 2003, it was estimated that about 5% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 79.2%, with 80.4% for men and 78.1% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 7.1% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Swaziland National Library Service was founded in 1971; with 250,000 volumes, it has 12 branches throughout the country and operates school libraries at secondary levels. There is also a mobile library service. The University of Swaziland in Kwaluseni has 180,000 volumes. The Swaziland Library Association was founded in 1984. The Swaziland National Museum in Lobamba, founded in 1972, contains collections primarily of ethnographic material and cultural objects of South Africa Bantu groups.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 44 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 15,600 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 84 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-operated Swaziland Broadcasting Service broadcasts radio programs in English and Siswati and television programs in English. As of 2004, there were two government-owned radio stations and one independent (religious) radio station. There was one privately owned television station, however, the latter was owned by a relative of the former king. The government also has a television station. In 2003, there were an estimated 162 radios and 34 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 28.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 26 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were two secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

There are two major daily English language newspapers, the Times of Swaziland and the Swaziland Observer, with circulations in 2002 of 18,000 and 11,000, respectively. Freedom of speech and of the press are said to be limited, especially on political matters.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are more than 123 cooperative societies, including the Swaziland Central Cooperatives Union. The national chamber of commerce and industry is in Mbabane. The National Consumer's of Swaziland was established in 1994. There are active professional associations, such as the Swaziland Nurses Association and Swaziland National Association of Teachers.

Educational organizations include the Swaziland Educational Research Association and Fundza, which works to establish school libraries throughout the country.

National youth organizations include the Swaziland Boy Scouts Association, Swaziland Workcamp Association, and the Swaziland Youth Forum. There are several sports associations in the country promoting amateur competition for athletes of all ages in a variety of pastimes; many of these groups are affiliated with international counterparts, as well as with the Swaziland Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs International, are also present. Social action and development groups include the Human Rights Association of Swaziland and Emanti Esive (Water for Community Development), a health and wellness organization. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, UNICEF, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Swaziland offers the tourist a magnificent variety of scenery and casinos at Mbabane, Nhlangano, and Pigg's Peak. The tea estates near the Mdzimba Mountains are also an attraction. Popular sports are tennis, squash, hiking, fishing, white-water rafting, lawn bowls (bowling on a green), and golf. If traveling from an infected area vaccination against yellow fever is required. Precautions against cholera, typhoid, polio, and malaria are recommended. Passports and travel documents are required of all visitors as well as visas from more than 145 countries including China and Russia.

In 2003, there were 218,813 visitors who arrived in Swaziland. Hotel rooms numbered 1,339 with 2,436 beds and a 33% occupancy rate. Over 50% of the visitors came from African nations.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the daily cost of staying in Mbabane was $247.

FAMOUS SWAZI

Sobhuza II (1899–1982) was king, or ngwenyama, of the Swazi nation from 1921 until his death. Mswati III (b.1968) became king in 1986.

DEPENDENCIES

Swaziland has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Booth, Alan R. Historical Dictionary of Swaziland. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2000.

Bowen, Paul N. A Longing for Land. Tradition and Change in a Swazi Agricultural Community. Brookfield, Vt.: Avebury, 1993.

Gillis, D. Hugh. The Kingdom of Swaziland: Studies in Political History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

Harris, Betty J. The Political Economy of the Southern African Periphery: Cottage Industries, Factories, and Female Wage Labour in Swaziland Compared. New York: St. Martin's, 1993.

Hope, Kempe R. AIDS and Development in Africa: A Social Science Perspective. New York: Haworth Press, 1999.

McElrath, Karen (ed.). HIV and AIDS: A Global View. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Penn, Helen. Unequal Childhoods: Children's Lives in Developing Countries. New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2005.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.