Montenegro

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MONTENEGRO

social structure and economic life
internal political life
foreign policy
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Montenegro, meaning "black mountain," has been shaped by its rugged mountainous terrain, which facilitated the existence of its tribal social structure, long impeded the development of centralized political authority, shaped its economy, and enabled it to evade foreign domination. In the nineteenth century, Montenegro was a small province on the border of the Ottoman and Habsburg empires. Population statistics vary, but estimate 60,000 to 80,000 inhabitants in midcentury, climbing to 185,000 in 1900.

social structure and economic life

Montenegrin society was largely patriarchal and militaristic. It was divided into family-based clans that warred against each other and engaged in ritual blood feuds. If one member of a clan killed a member of another, this murder had to be avenged by taking the life of one of the murderer's fellow clansmen, often spurring a chain reaction of revenge deaths and creating lawlessness. This lack of cooperation among clans also inhibited the development of trade, contributing to the generally poor economic situation. Other problems included a paucity of arable land that created a persistent problem of hunger and the lack of adequate infrastructure. The principal source of national income was animal husbandry, and people used pack animals for travel and communication. These poor conditions led to the raiding of neighboring territories and cattle rustling. Many Montenegrins also emigrated to Serbia, Russia, or Austria-Hungary. As education was not readily available, Montenegrin leaders encouraged working and studying abroad. They also moderately improved economic and cultural conditions by developing a trading class and schools.

internal political life

Political life was dominated by the attempt of its leaders to establish a centralized state, to which Montenegro's social structure posed a substantial obstacle. Only two central authorities existed: the office of civil governor, held by the Radonji? family, and the bishopric of Cetinje, held by the Petrovi? family and passed from uncle to nephew. The power of both was limited by the lack of an army, administration, justice system, and ability to collect taxes. Their quest to establish central authority and institutions met with resistance from clan leaders, whose only motivation to accept a single authority stemmed from the constant threats of invasion and domination by the Ottoman Empire. The tribal leaders, who enjoyed the loyalty of the people, successfully evaded centralization for much of the century.

The first steps toward centralization were taken in the eighteenth century by Bishop Peter I (1782–1830), who tried to create peace among the clans, establish a judiciary, and gather taxes. In 1798 he convened an assembly of tribal chiefs in Cetinje, which adopted Montenegro's first code of laws (written by Peter I) and established a central court to carry out administrative and judicial functions. However, the tribes refused to pay the taxes necessary to support these measures. Thus, centralization was not achieved, and tribal warfare, raiding, and looting continued. When Peter I died in 1830 a power struggle erupted between the Petrovi? and Radonji? families over the successor of the bishopric. Arguing that Peter I's nephew, Rade (1813–1851), was not a suitable heir as he was a minor, was not a monk, and had no formal education, the Radonji?s tried to establish superiority of the governorship to the bishopric. However, they were unable to win the support of clan chiefs, who preferred an

ecclesiastical leader to a governor. The Petrovi? family ultimately prevailed and abolished the office of the governor, killing or banishing the members of the Radonji? family. The bishop thus became the undisputed secular and religious leader of Montenegro. Rade eventually became a monk and adopted the name Peter II Petrovi? Njegoš. He took steps to establish a regular administrative apparatus and to limit the power of the tribes by creating a senate and a guard to serve police and judicial functions. However, he too lacked a military to enforce these measures. Clans continued to revolt, sometimes even forming alliances with foreign leaders in neighboring territories. Peter II kept the country together, but did not succeed in establishing the supremacy of the central government. He is perhaps better remembered as a poet and for his most famous work, The Mountain Wreath (1874).

Peter II died in 1851 and was succeeded by his nephew Danilo. Danilo II (1826–1860) secularized the office of bishop and proclaimed himself prince in 1852. After enduring an attack from local Ottoman authorities, Danilo overcame opposition from his senate to build a stronger, unified military. In 1855 he promulgated a law code based on principles of equality before the law and protection of rights of private property. When Danilo was assassinated in 1860 Nicholas I (1841–1921) assumed the throne. He proclaimed himself king in 1910 and ruled until the end of World War I. Under his reign, Montenegro doubled in size and gained access to the Adriatic Sea. Even though each successive Montenegrin ruler succeeded in securing greater central authority, the tribes remained a strong, even dominant, force in the land.

foreign policy

While struggling to establish authority at home, Montenegrin leaders concurrently contended with securing the province's borders, which were not formally recognized. The Porte (as the Ottoman Empire was known in diplomatic circles) claimed that Montenegro was an integral part of its empire, but was not able to collect taxes or to influence internal administration. Montenegro's mountainous terrain helped it to defy foreign occupation. The province enjoyed quasi independence and an ambiguous status with relation to the Ottoman Empire, which persistently battled to subjugate the territory. Peter I fought against Ali Pasha of Janina (1819–1821) during the Ottoman campaign and continued to battle the Porte during the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. Peter II battled Ottoman troops in 1832; Danilo II did in 1852 and 1858; and Nicholas I constantly entered into conflicts with the Porte. Montenegro also actively pursued its own foreign policy ambitions of securing an outlet to the Adriatic Sea and expanding its territory to the neighboring Herzegovinian and Albanian lands, where it often encouraged uprisings.

Both Montenegro's foreign and internal policies were inextricably linked to the interests and actions of the Great Powers. Montenegro's role in great-power politics was disproportionate to its size and economic weight. Especially important was its close and advantageous relationship with Russia, dating to 1715. Russia supported Montenegrin leaders in their battles against the Ottomans and their quest to centralize power at home. Russian financial subsidies were one of the leaders' few resources in the absence of tax collection. Russian wheat often fed the starving Montenegrin population. Russian envoys also assisted in the establishment of stronger centralized institutions. During Peter II's reign, Russia's influence in Montenegrin affairs became particularly significant. Peter II visited the Russian tsar several times during the 1830s, where he was even named bishop. Russia's support allowed Montenegrin rulers to take strides toward centralizing their authority.

Danilo II shifted orientation to Austria after a Habsburg ultimatum to Constantinople resulted in the return of Montenegrin territory captured during an 1852 attack by the Bosnian governor Ömer Pasha Latas (1806–1871). However, during the Crimean War (1853–1856), Austria-Hungary thwarted an opportunity to capture Ottoman territory. Montenegro made territorial gains during an uprising in Herzegovina in 1858, which it retained with the support of France and Russia. It also won the Porte's recognition of the boundary between the principality and the empire. During the Bosnian uprising of 1875 Nicholas I and the Serbian Prince Milan (1854–1901) were under pressure from the public and Pan Slav circles to take advantage of Ottoman weakness for further territorial gains. Montenegro and Serbia both desired liberation from the Ottoman Empire and territorial expansion. The countries were natural partners due to their shared Serbian nationality and Orthodox religion. Peter I encouraged Montenegrin tribes to aid the Serbian leader Karadjordjevi? during the Serbian national uprising. Peter II Njegoš advanced a sense of wider Serbian identity, drawing on the legend of the Battle of Kosovo (1389) and the common mission of expelling local Turks, expressed in The Mountain Wreath. Likewise, Serbia's national objectives aimed at union with Montenegro. However, despite their common political objectives and cultural identity, an undercurrent of rivalry existed between the two for control of South Slav affairs.

In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro waged war against the Porte. When their defeat became imminent, Russia came to their aid, leading to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. As a result of this conflict, Montenegro's territory more than tripled with the Treaty of San Stefano. Fearing the upset of balance of power and opposing strong Russian influence in the Balkans, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary called for the revision of the treaty at the Congress of Berlin (1878). Although it did not receive as much territory as it had wanted and its coastline was placed under Habsburg super-vision, Montenegro's independence was formally recognized and it obtained a port on the Adriatic. In 1912 Montenegro commenced hostilities against the Ottoman Empire, beginning the First Balkan War. Allied with Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece, it defeated the empire, permanently eliminating it from Balkan affairs. Montenegro then joined Serbia and Greece against Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, as a result of which it gained part of the Sandžak of Novi Pazar, previously an Austrian possession, and thus acquired a common frontier with Serbia. Persistently the object of great-power interest and intrigue, Montenegro managed to maneuver among the European powers until its defeat and occupation by Austria-Hungary during World War I.