Thailand

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Kingdom of Thailand
Region:	Southeast Asia
Population:	61,230,874
Language(s):	Thai, English
Literacy Rate:	93.8%
Compulsory Schooling:	6 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	4.8%
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 5,927,902
	Secondary: 4,097,331
	Higher: 1,522,142
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 87%
	Secondary: 56%

History & Background

The Kingdom of Thailand is one of the few developing countries never to have been colonized. It is located centrally in Southeast Asia with both extensive Pacific coasts (Gulf of Thailand) and Indian Ocean (Andaman Sea). It shares borders with Myanmar (Burma) to the west and northwest, the Lao PDR to the north and northeast, Cambodia to the south and east, and Malaysia to the south. Thailand occupies an area of 514,000 square kilometers (319,194 square miles). Its population is 61,230,874 (estimated in July 2000), making it the sixteenth largest country in the world.

Though not as culturally diverse as other Southeast Asian countries, such as Myanmar, Laos, or Indonesia, Thailand has, nevertheless, considerable ethnic diversity. The three major groups are ethnic Thais (roughly 45 percent), Thais of Lao-Isan (northeast) ethnicity (roughly 30 percent), and Sino-Thais (roughly 14 percent) who are generally well-assimilated. Among the other three major ethnic groups are diverse hill peoples in the north and west such as the Hmong and Karen, Islamic Malay peoples in the southernmost four provinces of Thailand, and Khmer-Thais in the lower part of the northeast.

Prior to 1939 and from 1945-1949 the country was known as Siam. In 1949, the name reverted to Thailand, literally meaning land of the free. The country's origin dates back to 1238 when the Sukhothai Kingdom was established (1238-1378). The Sukhotahai Kingdom was followed by the Ayuthaya Kingdom (1350-1767), Thonburi Kingdom (1768-1781), and the current Chakri Dynasty-Bangkok Period (1782 to present). The country has had a literate culture from its beginning. Its phonetic alphabet was invented by King Ramkhamhaeng in 1283 and was derived originally from a form of the Brahmi script of Southern Indian called Grantha (Pongsak 2001).

Traditionally, education took place in Buddhist temples (wat). Teachers were Buddhist priests who were considered the learned members of the community and they provided both moral training and the basics of a literary culture. This system prevailed from the thirteenth to the nineteenth centuries. A lasting influence of this system can be seen today in what are known as "temple schools" located on the grounds of Buddhist monasteries (approximately 20 percent).

In the late nineteenth century under the visionary leadership of its modernizing monarch, King Chulalongkorn (King Rama V) (1868-1910), Siam established a modern secular system of education. The introduction of a modern printing press by Western missionaries in the mid-1800s made it possible to print books in the Thai language, an extremely important development for the future of Thai education. In 1858, King Mongkut (Rama IV) had the first government printing press established.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

In 1871 King Rama V issued the Command Declaration on Schooling, representing the beginning of formal education in Siam. At that time, however, such schools were essentially elitist and served the royal family and their adoptees. Later schools were established to serve commoners. An English school was set up at the Palace to prepare princes and other royals for study overseas. In 1887, King Rama V established a formal Department of Education, responsible for the administration of all schools in the Kingdom (34 at that time) and religious affairs. As part of a major administrative reform of government, King Rama V established 13 ministries and the Department of Education was transformed into the Ministry of Education. In 1902, the National System of Education in Siam was promulgated providing for two types of education: general and professional or technical. The system specified various age limits for admission. In 1921, the Compulsory Primary Education Act became law, requiring compulsory four years of schooling.

Eleven years later in 1932, Siam was transformed from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy through a bloodless revolution. Following that transition, the first National Education Scheme was introduced. It articulated the ideal of equality of opportunity for all regardless of gender or socioeconomic background. In 1960, compulsory education was extended to seven years, four years of primary education and three years of lower secondary. This new law though was not vigorously enforced and most Thais, especially in rural areas completed only four years of formal schooling. In 1977, Thailand's educational system was changed from a 4-3-3-2 to a 6-3-3 structure, with six years of compulsory education, three years of lower secondary, and three years of upper secondary. This change was designed to ensure that more Thais would complete a complete cycle of basic education.

On August 14, 1999, His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej signed a new National Education Act, reflecting the basic policies of educational reform mandated by the new democratic constitution approved on October 11, 1997. This new act called for 12 years of free education for all Thais and 9 years of compulsory schooling.

Educational System—Overview

Thailand has a large and complex educational system. Basically, the system is a 6-3-3 one followed by a wide variety of postsecondary options. Public preschools are under the control of the Ministry of Education or Interior and serves children aged three to five. Private preschools serving the same age group are under the supervision of the Private Education Commission. Public primary schools accommodate children from the ages of 6 to 11 and are supervised by the Ministries of Education, Interior, and local municipalities. Private primary schools are under the control of the Private Education Commission. Secondary schools educate children between the ages of 12 to 17 and overseen by the Ministry of Education and local municipalities in the public sector and by the Private Education Commission in private schools.

Students between the ages of 14 to 17 who are seeking admission to selective universities or students seeking admission to highly selective schools attend private coaching schools. There are also private international schools teaching 5-to 18-year-olds under the supervision of the Private Education Commission. Selective public universities (undergraduate programs) teach 18- to 21-year-olds and are under the supervision of the Ministry of University Affairs. Selective public universities, offering graduate masters and doctoral programs are supervised by the Ministry of University Affairs. The "open universities" (both open admissions and open distance) serve the over 18 working population and are overseen by the Ministry of University Affairs.

International colleges and universities, private universities, teacher training colleges, institutes of technology, colleges of physical education, and nursing colleges offer undergraduate and master degree programs. These institutions of higher learning are controlled by the Ministry of University Affairs, the Ministry of Education, or the Ministry of Public Health depending upon their content.

There are 44,903 preprimary schools (6,619 private) in Thailand. The number of public primary schools and lower secondary is 31,129. Public lower and upper secondary schools number 2,660. There are 409 public vocational schools (upper secondary and postsecondary-certificate levels), 42 international schools and colleges, 36 Rajabhat Institutes, 50 Rajamangala Institutes of Technology, 13 special science schools, 13 colleges of physical education, 6 sports schools, 15 colleges of fine arts, 2 Buddhist universities, 11 original public selective universities, 8 recent new public universities, 2 public open universities, and 49 private universities in Thailand.

In addition to these genres of education supervised by the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Interior, and Ministry of University Affairs, a number of other ministries and agencies administer various kinds of schools and academic institutions. For example, the Ministry of Public Health administers nursing colleges, public health colleges, and a college of medical technology and public health. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives administers an irrigation college, a veterinary school, and a cooperative school. Seven other ministries and bodies administer schools and colleges of various types.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preprimary education is neither required nor guaranteed by the government for all students. With the rapid growth of the Thai economy, though, the high level of female participation in the labor force, and intense competition for entry to quality primary schools, the demand for preschool education has grown steadily. In 1995, approximately 73.7 percent of the three to five age group was enrolled in preschools, but by 1999 this percent had risen to an impressive 96.9 percent. The Eighth National Education Development Plan (1997-2001) calls for all preschool children to have access to at least one year of a school readiness program before 2001 and that no less than 90 percent of children aged three to five will have access to preprimary education in the year 2001. Reflecting the importance of this level of education, a special National Institute for Early Childhood Education (NECE) was established.

There are three basic types of preprimary education: Child development centers; Preschool classes offered by private schools, and public schools; and Formal kindergarten education offered by private and public schools.

The primary school curriculum is for six years. For each school year, there are 40 weeks of instruction with 25 hours per week resulting in a total of 1,000 hours of instruction per year. The curriculum is focused on five key competency areas rather than specific individual courses. The five areas are: Basic skills group (Thai language and mathematics); Life experiences; Character development; Work-oriented experiences; and Special experiences (grades 5 and 6 only).

Most students study at this level in public schools (88 percent). Though primary education is compulsory, it is still not universally attained as there are significant numbers of children from the ages of 6 through 11 not in primary school. These are children primarily in remote rural areas or urban slums. The overall enrollment percentage for primary schools in 1999 of 103.6 percent is misleading and is higher than 100 because of repeaters and those enrolled who are either under or overage (younger than 6 or older than 11). Thailand's net primary school attendance rate for 1997 was 88 percent, even lower than Vietnam's.

Secondary Education

Secondary education is divided into three years of lower secondary and three years of upper secondary education. To expand educational opportunities in remote rural areas, the Office of the National Primary Education Commission (ONPEC) has established extensive lower secondary programs around the country. Also, inspired by Her Royal Highness Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, the Ministry of Education has established a Sema Life Development Project to provide special scholarships for secondary education to rural girls vulnerable to potential exploitation by the commercial sex industry.

Upper secondary education is divided into two basic tracks: general academic and vocational. Of those in upper secondary, 57 percent take the general academic track and 43 percent the vocational. In both lower and upper secondary, students study for a total of 1,400 hours per year. The curriculum of both lower and upper secondary have four basic elements; Core subjects such as Thai, mathematics, science, and English which must be taken by all students; Prescribed elective subjects which differ according to local conditions and needs (the special needs of schools in Islamic areas of the south); Free elective subjects depending on the interests of learners; and Activities.

Enrollments at the secondary school level are critically important for economic and social development. This is an area where Thailand has lagged behind many of its Asia-Pacific neighbors. Japan and Korea, for example, have achieved universal secondary education. Also in terms of secondary school enrollment ratios, Thailand lags behind its major Southeast Asia neighbors like Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines. As late as 1990, only 39 percent of those finishing government primary schools continued on to secondary education. As the result of historically low secondary school enrollments, in the year 2000 around 80 percent of the total Thai population was not educated beyond the primary level.

In recent years there have been significant improvements in the transition from primary to lower secondary education, resulting in higher secondary enrollment ratios. By 1999, the transition rate from primary to lower secondary education had improved to 87.1 percent. Also from 1995 to 1999, the overall secondary school ratio improved from 53 to 71 percent. Despite such important improvements, nevertheless, 30 percent of 12-17 year olds have no opportunity to study at the secondary level. Thailand's net secondary school attendance rate of 47.6 percent (1997) ranked it much lower than many other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.

Another serious problem relates to regional disparities in the access to lower and upper secondary education. In the whole kingdom 43.3 percent of the population received 4 years of education, 90.8 percent had completed the primary program, 74.2 percent the lower secondary, and 47.4 percent had completed the general and vocational upper secondary programs. Percentages for the central region show 42.1 percent had completed 4 years of education, 100 percent had completed the primary grades, 78.4 percent the lower secondary program, and 51.2 percent the general vocational or upper secondary programs. Percentages in the northeast, north, and south were somewhat less than the central region, with the remotest and most economically disadvantaged northeast lagging behind other regions.

The less than complete enrollment ratios at both the secondary and primary level are reflected by the significant numbers of youth not in school. Some 143,900 children between the ages of 6 and 11; 231,000 between the ages of 12 and 14; and 231,000 from ages 15 to 19 are not in school. Of the population between the ages of 20 to 24, some 5,043,000 are not in school.

Higher Education

The Thai monarchy actively supports Thai higher education. Thailand's first and premier university was established on royal lands in 1916 by King Vajiravudh (King Rama VI) and named in honor of his father, King Chulalongkorn. All students receive their university degrees personally from the Royal Family. His Majesty the King himself is an active scholar and researcher and his daughter, H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn took a Ph.D. in Thailand and is an extremely active scholar who speaks numerous languages (both Asian and Western).

The Thai system of higher education is both large and complex with a myriad of potential opportunities for those graduating from the secondary school level or having met secondary equivalency requirements through non formal education. Amazingly there are a total of 780 institutions offering some type of higher education. Most secondary school graduates aspire for admission to one of the highly selective prestigious public universities. Admission to these universities (except NIDA) is based primarily on success in a standardized national university entrance examination administered by the Ministry of University Affairs. This examination has been used since 1962. This has resulted in a meritocratic system that clearly favors those of higher socioeconomic background from the best secondary schools, often in Bangkok or other urban areas of the country. A thorough analysis of the examination results for students from all regions of the country indicates rather dramatic disparities. Students attending school in more remote economically disadvantaged areas such as many parts of the north, northeast, and some parts of the south have much less chance of taking and/or passing the university entrance examination. To combat such inequalities, regional universities have developed special quota systems to ensure a specific number of slots for university students from their own regions.

In applying for admission to selective universities and taking the national university entrance examination, students indicate specific faculties and institutions in terms of priorities. Thus, some students may choose fields in which they do not have a genuine interest (where competition may be less keen) to enhance their chances of gaining admission to the most prestigious university possible.

Chulalongkorn University, established in 1916, has 26,381 students enrolled. Thammasat University was established in 1934 and has 20,667 students. Mahidol University has 26,859 students, and Kasetsart University has 27,366 students. Silapakorn University has 7,339 students. The latter three all opened in 1943. King Mongkut Institute of Technology with three campuses opened in 1959, 1960, and 1971. Total enrollment at the institute is 34,912. Chiang Mai University in the north opened in 1964 and enrolls 21,550 students. Khon Kaen University in the northeast also opened in 1964 with 17,938. The National Institute of Development Administration was established in 1966 and has 6,225 students. Prince of Songkla University in the south opened in 1967 and has 15,033 students. Srinakharinwirot University (formerly the major teacher training college) began in 1974 and has 13,452. All offer bachelor, masters, and doctorates with the exception of the National Institute of Development Administration which only offers master and doctorate degrees. Prince of Songkla University offers only bachelor and master degrees. All except Silapakorn, Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen, Prince of Songkla, and Srinakharinwirot are located in Bangkok.

These elite selective universities are quite diverse in nature and tend to specialize, though Chulalongkorn and the three major regional universities are comprehensive in their offerings. The diversity of higher education in Thailand is a reflection of the nation's special status of never having been colonized. Thus, in establishing various universities it has been rather eclectic. Chulalongkorn University has somewhat of a British flavor, while Thammasat University is noted for politics and is more French oriented. The literal meaning of Thammasat is moral sciences. Mahidol University is noted for medicine and science and it is named after a Prince who studied at the Harvard Medical School. Kasetsart, which has an agricultural orientation, was somewhat modeled after a U.S. land grant institution and is noted for its extensive and effective outreach programs.

For students who can not gain access to these selective elite public institutions of higher education there are multiple options. In recent years, a number of new public universities have been established in local areas. Each provides special quota admissions for students for their respective regions. In some cases branch campuses of Bangkok universities became separate universities. Local politicians have actively worked to support this development as a mechanism to provide more higher education opportunities for those in the regions and those of rural backgrounds.

Some of the more recently established public universities and their enrollments include Burapa University in the southeast (1990) with 6,613 students; Mahasarakham University (1994) in the northeast with 12,400 students; Naresuan University (1990) in the north with 14,104 students, Suranaree University of Technology (1990) in the northeast with 5,473 students. In the south Thaksin University (1996) has an enrollment of 3,609 students. Ubon Ratchatani University in the northeast was established in 1990, and Walailak University in the south was established in 1992 and has 2,153 students. Mae Fah Luang, which began in 1997, in the north has a projected enrollment of 350 students for the year 2001.

Suranaree University of Technology in the northeast and Walailak University in the south were established as fully autonomous public universities. Thus, they can establish salary levels and personnel policies, independent of the University Civil Service system and the normal regulations of the Ministry of University Affairs. They provide possible models for the education reform proposal to make all public universities more autonomous.

Another educational opportunity for students is attendance at one of Thailand's two large open universities. In an earlier period Thammasat University had been an open university. In 1971 Ramkhamhaeng University was established as Thailand's first formal open university to meet the growing social demand for higher education which could not be met by the existing selective universities. Ramkhamhaeng now offers both bachelor's and master's degree and has a large student body of 355,352. This institution is an open admissions university, which is basically a conventional university with direct classroom learning and instruction complemented by media. It also serves working adults who may be interested in a second degree and/or enhancing job-related skills in a specific area. In 1978, Thailand established a second open university, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU), which is an open distance university, basically an innovative university without walls. It has students in all 76 provinces of Thailand learning by television, radio, correspondence, and the Internet. Its total enrollment is 209,680. STOU has targeted working adults as a major clientele for its programs and has plans to develop several doctoral programs.

Another option for higher education is a group of institutions known as Rajabhat Institutes, which were formerly teacher training colleges. There is one of these colleges located in every other province, providing convenient access to those residing in remote areas of the country. When they were transformed from Teacher Training Colleges into Rajabhat Institutes in the early 1990s, their curricula were diversified to provide training and learning in many practical fields, such as tourism management and business administration.

For students interested in technology and technical fields, there are 50 Rajamangala Institutes of Technology around the country, which like the Rajabhats offer the bachelor degree.

In recent years the growing demand for higher education has stimulated the private sector to offer more opportunities for students to finish secondary school. These institutions tend to be more expensive than the public ones. There are 49 private universities in Thailand, enrolling 199,464 students (1999), serving almost as many students as the original selective public universities. Fifty-five percent of these private universities are located outside of Bangkok, thus, help to serve higher education needs in the regions. The first to be granted university status was Payap University in Chiang Mai in 1974. It has a liberal arts orientation with strong strengths in areas such as music and sports. It receives special funding through its missionary affiliation and in the past received major U.S. aid funding for renovation of its campus. The largest private university is Bangkok University with 22,135 students.

Given its central location in both Asia and Southeast Asia, Thailand has been considered a potentially attractive location for international universities and colleges. The most well-known institution of this type is the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), sometimes referred to as the "MIT of Asia." It serves students throughout the Asia-Pacific region and has an international faculty. AIT grew out of the SEATO School of Engineering and was established as AIT in 1967. The Thai government provides roughly 20 percent of its funding. Assumption University, a private university, uses an exclusive English language curriculum and has many international faculty. Also a number of Thai universities collaborate with overseas institutions to offer special international programs. An example is the Sasin Graduate Institute of Business Administration, an internationally oriented English language MBA program housed at Chulalongkorn University and established in 1982, conducted in collaboration with the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania and the J.L. Kellogg Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University. This was Thailand's first English language graduate management program. Mahidol University has an International College embedded within it which uses an exclusively English language curriculum and serves both Thai and international students who need higher education offered in English.

During the economic boom of the 1985-1995 period, there were many plans to establish new international colleges and universities. With the economic crisis of 1997, many of these plans collapsed since they were highly dependent upon private sector funding. Prior to the economic crisis, Thailand was also developing international academic programs to serve the needs of students from transitional economies such as Cambodia, the Lao PDR, and Vietnam. As Thailand recovers from its economic crisis, such programs are likely to be revitalized and expanded.

Starting with the reforms introduced by King Chulalongkorn in the late 1800s, Thailand has also had a strong tradition of sending students abroad for higher education. In fact, there is a Thai word, chup dua, which means to acquire prestige by going abroad for further study or training. Many of those in leadership positions both in the public and private sectors have studied overseas. His Majesty King Bhumibol was educated in Switzerland, and His Majesty's father, Prince Mahidol studied medicine at Harvard. The prime minister of Thailand has a doctorate from the United States. Prior to the Pacific War, Europe, especially England, was the most popular site for overseas study. In the post-war period, overseas opportunities have greatly diversified. In the 1960s and 1970s, during the Cold War period, there was considerable U.S. funding available for talented Thai students to pursue advanced studies in the U.S. A high percentage of top-ranking Thai civil servants have studied abroad. The Thai government itself has also provided considerable funding in support of overseas study. In 1999, there were 3,223 Thai students abroad being supported by Thai government fellowships. Even if Thai civil servants do not receive a fellowship for overseas study, they automatically receive their full government salary while on approved study leave, either internationally or locally. This has been a major source of support for overseas education and training.

With respect to enrollment at the higher education level, in 1999, approximately 25.7 percent of the 18 to 21 age group were enrolled, leaving roughly 3,300,000 of this age group not participating in any institution of higher education. Despite Thailand's major economic crisis, higher education enrollments actually increased 19.8 percent between 1998 and 1999. There were two major reasons for this. First, the Thai government introduced a major loan program to assist students to help meet the costs of both upper secondary and college level education. Second, with the economic crisis and related higher unemployment levels, the opportunity cost of pursuing higher education certainly declined.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

As illustrated by the sweeping educational reforms introduced by the visionary monarch, King Chulalongkorn in the late 1800s, education has been strongly influenced by politics in Thailand. Until 1932, Siam had a system of absolute monarchy, which was transformed in a bloodless revolution into a constitutional monarchy in June 1932. From 1932 to 1973, the military dominated Thai politics for much of the period, and there were often significant constraints limiting the freedoms of Thai intellectuals, scholars, and students. A major student revolution, which erupted in October 1973, fundamentally changed the future direction of Thai politics and education. Three military tyrants were expelled from the country and replaced by a prime minister who had been a professor at Thammasat University. From 1973 to 1976, Thailand experienced its most open period ever in terms of intellectual fervor and the tolerance of diverse perspectives. Great concerns about educational equity and equality emerged and were addressed in a major educational reform initiative. Unfortunately this reform movement was cut short by a counter coup by the police and military on October 6, 1976, when police stormed Thammasat University, which was housing student protesters. The more open environment was restored after another coup in October 1977, which ushered in the current democratic period. In the subsequent period there was only one successful military coup in February, 1991, which was reversed in a people power confrontation with the military in May 1992. This event opened the door for the political and educational reforms initiated in the late 1990s.

Prior to 1980, there were three separate ministries administering education: Ministry of Interior (most primary education), the Ministry of Education (secondary education and some postsecondary education), and the Ministry of University Affairs (responsible for institutions of higher education.) In 1980, demonstrating able leadership and vision, Dr. Sippanondha Ketudat, a Harvard-trained technocrat serving as Minister of Education, orchestrated a transfer of authority for basic primary education from the Ministry of Interior to the Ministry of Education. Since the budget for basic primary education represented approximately 10 percent of the national budget, this was a remarkable example of the potential for structural change in Thai education.

The administration of Thai education is exceedingly complex given the multiple actors and agencies involved. A number of different ministries and agencies are involved in administering education in Thailand. They are the Ministry of Education, Ministry of University Affairs, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of Transport and Communications, Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment, Ministry of Justice, and the Thai Red Cross Society.

There is considerable overlap and redundancy among ministries and agencies providing education. This has made effective planning complex and difficult. For example, both the Ministry of University of Affairs and the Ministry of Education have been actively involved in preparing teachers. This created a crisis in a tremendous overproduction of education graduates relative to need. Also nine different agencies are involved in providing primary education.

In general, the system of education is highly centralized, especially the part administered by the Ministry of Education, which houses a large bureaucracy in the capital of Bangkok. The 14 departments within the Ministry are extremely strong and are even commonly referred to as the "14 fiefdoms." This over centralized system results in excessive funds being spent on administration rather than for educational improvements. Also, this over centralization has contributed to inefficiency and an inability to be responsive to the diverse needs of local communities.

In terms of educational finance, Thailand actually spends an impressive amount of both its GDP and national government budget on education. In 1998, the government budget for education was 3.9 percent of GDP and despite the serious economic crisis of the late 1990s, education in fiscal years 1998 and 1999 was about 25.0 percent of total government expenditures, the highest ever. The budget approved by Parliament for the year 2000 represented 25.7 percent of the national budget.

While the majority of funds for education come from the national budget, over time an increasing amount of local funds have become available to support education. This has been particularly true of the Bangkok Metropolitan Authority (BMA), where 28.1 percent of its budget is derived from its own local funds. In the future it is likely that other wealthier urban areas, such as Haadyai, Pattaya, Phuket, and Chiang Mai, will provide considerable local funding in support of education.

Thailand also receives considerable international assistance in support of education in the form of loans and technical assistance. Major multilateral assistance has been received from the Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, and the OECF. Major bilateral assistance has been provided by Austria, Denmark, and Germany.

Compared to other countries of its size and stage of development, Thailand has produced extensive educational research and the Thai publishing industry has grown dramatically in recent decades with much research published in Thai as well as in English. The origins of Thai educational research date back to 1955, when the International Institute for Child Study was established in Bangkok. The Institute has now become the Behavioral Science Research Institute and has conducted both basic and applied research. In the 1960s, the Thai government began actively supporting research, primarily done by divisions of the Ministry of Education and the National Education Commission. In 1974, the Office of University Affairs issued new regulations requiring research work for the promotion of faculty, which led for the first time to the systematic encouragement of research. In the Thai context, the development of textbooks was counted as "research" for purposes of promotion. In 1998, only 21.5 percent of faculty in public universities and 7.8 percent in private universities had Ph.D. research degrees, which is an important barrier to Thailand's overall research capacity at the university level.

Extensive educational research is conducted by the Office of the National Education Commission (ONEC), Thailand's major educational R&D center, which is part of the Office of the Prime Minister. This office did important and extensive research underlying the education reform initiative (1999-2002). Another major source of research is provided by the faculty and students of Thailand's many universities, especially in faculties of education. Some research is also done by the Ministry of Education itself, particularly by its Department of Curriculum and Instructional Development. That research focuses on testing, curriculum, and text development. Combining English and Thai language materials, there have been more than a total of 1,000 publications of educational research in recent decades.

Another important research-oriented institution is the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST), which is responsible for R&D and related training to improve the teaching of science and technology in Thailand. IPST participated in the Third International Mathematics and Science Study. To facilitate research, a new Library Network has been established in Thailand that will electronically link the National Library, university libraries, the Rajabhat Institute Library, the Rajamangala Institute of Technology Library, and other libraries around the country.

Nonformal Education

Around 1978, the concept of "life-long education" was introduced and led to the expansion of nonformal education to cover all ages of the population. Under his brilliant leadership, the late Dr. Kowit Vorapipatana, "the father of nonformal education in Thailand," transformed a rather modest Division of Adult Education (established in 1938) into an important department of Nonformal Education (1979) which now has a presence in every district of Thailand. Influenced by the Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire, he introduced the important pedagogical concept of khit-pen, which literally means to be able to think for yourself.

An adult literacy campaign under the leadership of Dr. Kasama Varavan in the early 1990s, was carried out by the Nonformal Education Department. Thailand's literacy rate is an impressively high 94 percent with female literacy at 91.6 percent. For its success in combating illiteracy in Thailand, the Department won the ESCAP Human Resources Development Award. Its special equivalency programs offer Thais a major second chance to complete primary and/or secondary education.

The various genres of non formal and informal education present in Thailand offer a rather remarkable array of potential learning opportunities to both enhance quality of life and employment productivity and capability. Programs include basic education, literacy, primary and secondary equivalency, vocational education, handicraft training, reading and science programs, religious and tribal programs, language studies, health education, politics, and environmental studies.

Teaching Profession

Teacher education in Thailand has a long tradition, dating back to 1892 when the first training school for elementary school teachers was founded as part of King Chulalongkorn's reforms. Relative to other countries at its early stage of development, Thailand has a well-educated teaching force. Eighty-six percent of primary school teachers hold a bachelor's degree. Contributing to this achievement was the establishment in the 1960s of teacher training colleges in every other province. With such proximity to remote rural areas, these colleges have been the primary opportunity for social mobility for bright and motivated youth from a rural background. The Thai government also established a special scholarship program for those willing to return to their rural areas after completing their studies in teacher education. As in many countries, a major problem is a failure to attract the most talented and qualified students to faculties of education. Data indicate that the most talented Thais tend to prefer study in fields such as medicine, engineering, or business, primarily because of the prestige and higher earnings in such careers.

There are a total of 114 postsecondary institutions involved in preparing future teachers. Teacher training courses are being primarily offered by faculties of education in 16 public universities, 36 Rajabhat Institutes (RIs) (formerly teacher training colleges), vocational education colleges, physical education colleges, and dramatic and fine arts colleges. The latter types of institutions train vocational teachers. Fourteen public universities offer master's level training in education as do two private universities. Doctoral programs in education are offered by four public universities (Chulalongkorn, Srinkharinwirot, Kasetsart, and Silapakorn).

With so many institutions offering teacher training under different administrative centers, there has been a vast overproduction of those trained in teacher education. As a result, Thailand has one of the lowest student-teacher ratios in Asia, especially at the primary school level. Also contributing to this situation is Thailand's remarkable success in family planning and fertility reduction. Population growth is only 0.93 percent per year (estimated for the year 2000). This has resulted in the problem of having many small schools particularly in remote sparsely populated areas. Thailand has also had a tradition of a school in every village, also contributing to small schools and an overly low student-teacher ratio. In negotiations with the Asian Development Bank for social sector funding related to the economic crisis, the Thai government agreed to raise the teacher-student ratio to 25:1 by fiscal year 2002 by strictly controlling the hiring of new primary school teachers. Achievement of this goal should enhance the internal efficiency of Thai education.

While Thailand actually has an adequate number of teachers, there are serious problems related to the allocation and distribution of these teachers. Some areas and provinces have far more teachers than classrooms, while other areas do not have enough teachers to cover all classes, thus, requiring multi-grade teaching, which has adverse effects on educational quality.

Related to the many complex issues related to teacher issues (including traditional pedagogy emphasizing rote memorization of facts), a special Teacher Education Reform Office (TERO) was established in 1997 to examine strategies for enhancing the teaching profession and improving the quality of teaching in Thailand. TERO has also directly assessed the complex problem of the over-production of teacher education graduates who have no prospects for obtaining teaching jobs and has also proposed innovative strategies for upgrading the existing teaching force.

Summary

During the past several decades Thailand has achieved impressive success in expanding its educational system quantitatively at all levels and improving its basic educational infrastructure. This success was facilitated by the extremely high economic growth experienced in the period, 1985-1995. The euphoria concerning such macroeconomic success tended to mask the important reality that, among lower middle-income countries, Thailand's social and educational development was significantly lagging behind its economic development. With the advent of the economic crisis in July 1997, even this rapid economic growth proved unsustainable. The crisis also stimulated a more critical, deeper, and more systematic analysis of Thailand's complete development structure, including its educational system.

Thailand faces what has been termed the "mid-level technology pinch." Thailand can no longer compete with countries with extremely low labor costs (such as India and Vietnam) in manufacturing labor intensive products, but has not yet developed the strong research and development capability to compete with high technology manufacturers in industrial countries. With higher level wages but an average educational level of 5.3 in its workforce, Thailand faces serious problems in international competitiveness and in improving the productivity of its workforce. It also must find ways to enhance the development of local indigenous R&D to respond to the challenge of the mid-level technology pinch.

The Asian economic crisis represented a valuable "wake-up call" to Thailand; it demonstrated the urgent need to improve education and human resource development. The crisis set in motion new public and political forces leading to a major educational reform initiative mandated in the October 1997 constitution and codified legally in the National Education Act of August 1999. A public organization, the Education Reform Office (ERO) was established in 1999 to implement the critically needed educational reforms.

The reforms have the following key elements: major structural changes in the management of education, including decentralization to local education areas and rationalization and reengineering of the administration of education. A new national Ministry of Education, Religion, and Culture will be established comprised of four basic organizations: National Council for Education, Religion, and Culture; The Commission for Basic Education; The Commission for Higher Education; and the Commission on Religion and Culture; greater fiscal and administrative autonomy for Thai public universities; provision of free basic education to all Thai youth with 12 years and 9 years of compulsory schooling; shift to demand-side financing of education with a reform of the budget process; de-institutionalizing education and expanding choice, represented in the popular slogan of the educational reform campaign: "Education for All and All for Education." The education for all concept reflects the thrust for greater equity as an important element of reform. There is also an emphasis on the utilization of local wisdom and knowledge and a National Institute for the Development of Thai Wisdom and Education (NISE) has been established; and fundamental change in pedagogy away from teacher-centered learning emphasizing rote memorization to student-centered learning fostering independent thinking and creativity. Related to this reform, the visual metaphor of children with heads of parrots is being used in the campaign's critique of conventional learning approaches and patterns.

The proposed reforms are intended to provide all Thais with the opportunity to complete quality secondary education in accord with their own needs and preferences. The reform opens up opportunities for more home schooling, charter schooling, and other alternatives, including a greater role for the private sector. Major budgets are to be decentralized to local education areas, which can then make decisions about the use of educational resources. Under the old centralized system, money often came at the wrong time for the wrong things. Under the new system, educational services and curricula can be more responsive to local needs.

To assure accountability in the new system, a special office for external quality assurance is being established to monitor the quality of schools under the new system and provide educational consumers with better opportunities for more informed choices. A system for licensure for both teachers and administrators is also being introduced. To revitalize the teaching profession and to reward outstanding teaching performance, a system to recognize and provide special National Teacher Awards for outstanding innovative teachers was established in 1998. As part of the learning reform initiative, individuals will be recognized and designated as National Teachers and Master Teachers to spearhead student-centered learning reforms.

Another critical arena directly related to the reforms and the technology pinch is the promotion of R&D in the science and technology area. Thai universities as a whole produced only 135 Ph.D.s in 1997. In honor of His Majesty King Bhumibol's 50 years on the throne (1996), a Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. Program was established to provide fellowships for the most talented Thais to obtain Ph.D. level training in the next twenty years. The target of the Ph.D. Program is to produce 5,000 Ph.D.s during Phase I (1997-2011) and 20,000 Ph.D.s during Phase II (2011-2021). The Program utilizes a "sandwich strategy" in which Fellows will receive their Ph.D.s from Thai institutions but with international experience and collaboration. Also, the Eighth National Education Development Plan (1997-2001) calls for no less than one percent of GDP to be invested in public and private sector R&D by the year 2001. In 1995, R&D as a percent of GDP was an extremely low 0.17.

Related to R&D is the development of information technology (IT). This is an area in which Thailand has made considerable progress and has excellent potential. A survey completed by Mahidol University indicates that 63 percent of urban youth and 34 percent of rural youth are able to use a computer. Thomas Friedman in his book, The Lexus and the Olive Tree argues that those countries that are deficient in IT will be left behind. If he is correct in his assessment, this should augur well for the future of Thailand. Interestingly, Thailand's prime minister, Dr. Thaksin Shinawatra, elected in January, 2001, is a former leading entrepreneur in IT development for Thailand and the region.

The Lexus and the Olive Tree also raises the issue of the tension between globalization (the lexus) and preservation of local culture (the olive tree). That potential cultural collision is also embedded within elements of Thailand's educational reform initiative. With a noncolonial heritage, the Thais are confident, however, that they can globalize in their own unique way and still preserve their rich Thai cultural heritage. The King's project of economic self-sufficiency, for example, draws upon traditional culture but is responsive to the need for sustainable development. At times unilinear thinking exaggerates potential contradictions between modernity and tradition as illustrated in the fundamentally progressive essence of Buddhist epistemology as expressed thousands of years ago in the Kalama Sutra of the Lord Buddha:

Yes, you may well doubt, you may well be uncertain. . . .Do not accept anything because it is the authoritative tradition, because it is often said, because of rumour or hearsay, because it is found in the scriptures, because it agrees with a theory of which one is already convinced, because of the reputation of an individual, or because a teacher said it is thus and thus. . . .But experience it for yourself.

Numerous public hearings on educational reform have been held in various regions of Thailand. While a national consensus in support of educational reform (including all major political parties) has emerged, there are still pockets of resistance (both overt and covert). Resistance primarily is reflected in the following views: Skepticism about the capability of local areas to manage education on their own. Related to this view are concerns about potential corruption and nepotism at the local level; concerns about potential unintended adverse consequences of the new "voucher-type" demand side system of funding of education; concerns about whether more experiential student-centered learning will actually improve learning outcomes; and more covert resistance is from stakeholders who have strong vested interests (often related to financial benefits, urban amenities, and job security) in the highly centralized administrative system.

Implementing this bold educational reform represents a major challenge to both the Thai government and its people. Its implementation will require determined and astute political leadership. The painful economic crisis, which emerged in 1997, sent a strong warning signal that "more of the same" in education is no longer viable and that Thailand needs to get more "bang for its buck" in education. Given the constraints on how much the central government can support education, and particularly given the bold commitment to 12 years of free education, it is critically important to mobilize other private, local, and even international resources in support of the reform process and policies. Successful implementation of educational reform is critical for Thailand to restore its earlier economic performance and to increase its international competitiveness and the productivity of its people. This in turn should contribute to a higher quality of life and standard of living for all Thais in the Kingdom in the twenty-first century.

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