VATICAN

The present territory of the Vatican is only a small portion of the area that was known to the ancient Romans as Vaticanum. This territory extended on the right bank of the Tiber from Monte Mario to the Janiculum and embraced mons Vaticanus, the Vatican hill, vallis Vaticana, the Vatican valley, and campus Vaticanus, the Vatican plain, the broad surface of the "Prati." This was the last of 14 administrative regions into which Augustus divided the city of Rome.

EARLY HISTORY

In antiquity, the Vatican was valued for its many brickfields, notorious on account of its bitter wine but renowned also for several buildings. There stood the Naumachia (a stadium for aquatic sports); a kind of race course to which tradition has given the name of Gaianum (after Caligula); to the south of this, the sepulcher of the Emperor Hadrian and, in the neighborhood of the present St. Peter's, the Phrygianum, a sanctuary of the goddess Cybele. On the Janiculum towards the Tiber were Nero's gardens that took their origin from Agrippina, Caligula's mother.

Necropolis. During the rebuilding of St. Peter's at the end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seventh century, some pagan graves were discovered. However, it would not be until the twentieth century that discoveries would lead to extensive excavations. When the Annona (the store in Vatican City) was being constructed in 1930 some tombs were discovered below the surface. The inscriptions on the tombs were from the end of the first century and into the second century. Not far away but a little towards the West, a further cemetery was reached, and in part unearthed, during the preparatory work for a new building at the beginning of the same year. This time the burial places go back as far as the start of the first century and extend into the second. Two tombs of servants of the Roman Imperial house from the time of Nero were found.

After the burial of Pius XI in 1939 work commenced on the grottos underneath st. peter's basilica. In 1940 workmen uncovered a random series of marble and stone sarcophagi, some small and plain, other large and impressively ornamented. The tombs stretched in an East-West line on the slope of the Vatican hill and at one time they must have formed, as a whole, one of ancient Rome's largest cemeteries. The older row of mausoleums had its back wall so tightly against the hill on the northern side that only the upper part of the back of the wall was visible above the ground. The somewhat later series of mausoleums, separated from the former by a narrow pathway and running parallel with it to the south, had no lateral contact with the hill and rose free from the ground on every side. The northern mausoleums were originally arranged only for funeral urns. The southern mausoleums contained hollowed cavities for sarcophagi and tombs. The excavators used the Greek alphabet to identify the mausoleums. An important mausoleum is that of the Caetennii (F) with paintings of goblets, fruits, flowers, birds and gazelles, and mythological figures; there is also the image of the Christian Gorgonia holding a flask of fresh water, indicating eternal life. Another is the mausoleum M with its mosaic decorations; a pagan tomb that was used by Christians contains an image of Jonah, a fisherman with line, and a Good Shepherd with sheep on either side. The mausoleum B is a purely Christian tomb that provides the most ancient mosaics discovered with a Christian subject, including the Christ-Helios. Finally the mausoleum of the Egyptians (Z) was erected at the end of the second century; old bones were displaced and then reverently collected in an ossarium and reburied. The mausoleums were used for 150–200 years.

The Tomb and Bones of Peter. A shrine was discovered under the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica that proved to be difficult to excavate. E. Kirschbaum describes how the excavators systematically made their way toward the area where St. Peter was believed to be buried. They broke through the walls of the Clementine chapel, which led to another wall at the time of Gregory the Great. An opening was made in this wall that revealed a white marble facade. The walls on either side were breached, which led to the Constantinian marble pavement. There was a red-colored wall (the Red Wall) that did not rest on the Constantinian pavement but went below. The Red Wall was part of a monument over a grave. A lamp and cross were discovered, which are described in the Liber Pontificalis as gifts from Constantine. The investigation continued on the rear side of the monument. After breaking through the Constantinian wall, a graffiti wall was discovered. This wall had scribble from pilgrims. Further excavation around the Red Wall revealed the "Tropaion" of Gaius, a pre-Constantinian monument. The Red Wall with two graveyards Q and P and a drainage canal were erected as a unified bloc between the already standing mausoleums R-R' and S. Five bricks were found stamped by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius about a.d.160, which gives the date of the Red Wall and the Tropaion. Human bones were found beneath the Red Wall. Pius XII was informed and he ordered testing. The bones (with no skull) were of a man between 65 and 70 years old and placed in a wooden box, and it was speculated that they might be the bones of St. Peter. The excavations ended in 1949.

A new stage began when the excavations were open to professionals in 1952. Dr. M. Guarducci deciphered the logogram PE discovered by A. Ferrua on the graffiti wall as "Peter is within"; another inscription was translated as "Christian men buried near your body." In 1956 Professor Correnti was asked to examine the bones. He discovered that the bones were of some animals and three people; there was no indication that any of the bones were of St. Peter. Correnti was asked to examine bones discovered in the courtyard and ones that were unknowingly removed in 1942 from the graffiti wall. He finished the examination of the courtyard bones in 1962; they were of four individuals. A year later he finished the examination the bones from the graffiti wall and determined that they were of one man between 60 and 70 years old. These bones were taken from the earth and wrapped in a purplish, gold-threaded cloth. Guarducci took the results of Correnti's study and developed a theory that demonstrated the likelihood that the bones were those of St. Peter. Guarducci published her report in 1965, which encountered criticism. She responded to her critics in a 1967 report. A troubling question was why the bones were removed from the grave and placed in a niche prior to the monument built by Constantine. Correspondence between Guarducci and Paul VI convinced the pope to announce in 1968 that the bones were of St. Peter. Most scholars accept that St. Peter was probably martyred within months after the fire of Rome in July of 64. In 1968 Guarducci proposed the date of Oct. 13, 64, because this is the anniversary of Nero's accession to the throne. J. E. Walsh reviewed the evidence in 1987 and became supportive of the Guarducci theory about the bones. He proposed that the bones were removed around 250 for security reasons during the persecutions of Emperor Valerian.

Constantine's Basilica. The basilica begun by Constantine c. 324 was completed by his son Constantius c. 354. It was a rectangular church whose central nave was

some 230 feet across and 40 feet long with a V-shaped wooden roof 131 feet high at its apex. Four rows of 22 columns each constituted the five aisles, the two central columns being 29 feet high. The top register of the clere-story was pierced by 11 windows, four on each side and three on the nave; and its walls were decorated with frescoes; those on the lowest level included the portraits of the popes commissioned by Liberius (352–366). The three middle sections of the clerestory contained representations of the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles on the top story, and on each side of the nave, 46 scenes from the Old and New Testaments. The two aisles were some 29 feet wide and 62 feet high, while the outside aisles were 46 feet high and 29 feet wide. A triumphal mosaic arch dominated the central nave of the church with a scene in which Constantine was representing as presenting a model of the basilica to Christ.

In the center of the transept, which was 59 feet wide, the tomb of St. Peter formed the axis of the basilica. It was a block-shaped building made of blue-veined marble, boxed in by four porphyry columns and surmounted by an inverted ciborium supported by six white spiral columns. A votive crown with 50 lamps in the form of dolphins was suspended from the center of the umbrella like

covering. The details have been preserved on the facade of an ivory box found at Samagher, near Pola, Istria.

The Paradiso. Entrance to the basilica was provided by five doors called from right to left, the Porta Guidonea, Romana, Regia, Ravegnana, and Judicii. The last received its name from the fact that it was the door through which funerals passed; the others, probably from donors. Before the entrance was a garden with fountains called the Paradiso; it contained the pine-cone-shaped fountain admired by Dante and today decorating the courtyard of the Pigna. Entrance to this garden was provided by three bronze doors in a large portico supported by 46 columns and measuring some 203 feet by 184 feet. The platform in front was used for coronations and other ceremonials and was fronted by 35 steps.

Papal Ornamentation. The magnificence of this basilica on the side of a hill facing the city of Rome not only impressed the local citizenry, but it became a center of interest, and of pilgrimages from all over the Christian world. Pope Damasus I (366–384) erected a baptistery on the north transept of the basilica, using the water drained from the tomb area by his engineers; and Pope Symmachus (498–514) surrounded this area with three small chapels dedicated to the Holy Cross, St. John the Baptist, and St. John the Evangelist.

The Emperor Valentinian I, under Pope Sixtus III (432–440), had the facade of the tomb decorated with a representation of Christ flanked by the 12 Apostles standing before the 12 gates of Jerusalem. Pope Leo I (440–461) repaired the damages caused by an earthquake in 443, and restored the facade of the basilica with a mosaic of Christ, the Virgin Mary, St. Peter, the symbols of the Four Evangelists, and the 24 elders of the Apocalypse. The expenses were evidently borne by the consul Marinianus and his wife Anastasia.

Pelagius II (579–590) erected a pulpit in the sanctuary. Pope Gregory I (590–604) raised the level of the sanctuary and built a permanent altar directly over the tomb, leaving open a small window through which the eastern face of the Constantinian monument could be seen. He dismantled the original baldachino, or pegola, used the six spiral columns to form a screen in front of the apse, and excavated behind the altar to form a semicircular crypt giving access from the back. John VII (705–707) built a richly decorated chapel of the Virgin Mary, which was demolished in 1606. Gregory III (731–741) added six spiral columns to the screen in from of the altar, and succeeding popes took pride in adorning the basilica. Stephen II (732–757) erected a bell tower and enclosed one of the fountains in the atrium with an eight-column bronze cupola, while Leo III (795–816) enlarged the baptistery. Paschal I (817–824) built a chapel in honor of SS. Processus and Martianus.

Additions by Medieval Popes. Pillaged by the Saracens in 846, the basilica was repaired by Leo IV (847–855). Callistus II (1119–1124) enclosed the Gregorian altar in a boxlike construction and erected a new altar directly above it. In 1298 Cardinal James Stefaneschi had Giotto decorate the portico with a mosaic depicting Christ walking on the waters to calm the Apostles in the boat (Mt 14.22–33). This Mosaic, called the Navicella, was preserved, and today graces the ceiling of the atrium to the basilica. The basilica was neglected during the residence of the popes at Avignon; but Pope Benedict XII (1334–1342) repaired the roof; and Pope Eugene IV (1431–1441) had Antonio Averulino (Filarete) execute the door in bronze that today stands as the central portal of the modern basilica.

Vatican Monasteries. The early residence of the popes was in the Lateran palace, and the nearby Constaninian now known as the basilica of St. John Lateran served as the cathedral for the Bishop of Rome. St. Peter's was used as a station church and for special ceremonies.

Leo I (c. 450) seems to have erected a monastery dedicated to SS. John and Paul on the north side of the Vatican for the monks who served St. Peter's. A second monastery in honor of St. Martin was added on a spot now occupied by the pilaster supporting the cupola that contains the statue of St. Veronica; a third called St. Stephen Major, or cata Galla Patricia, stood behind the apse of the modern basilica; and a fourth, founded by Stephen IV on the site of the present sacristy, served later as a hospice for Hungarian pilgrims, but was demolished in 1776. A fifth monastery for nuns seems to have existed opposite the oratory of Symmachus during the early Middle Ages; and Pope Nicholas III (1277–1280) built a home for the canons of St. Peter on the south side of the basilica where the modern residence stands.

During the reign of Symmachus I (498–514), likewise, residences for the poor were constructed on the south side of the basilica; they were rebuilt under Sergius I (687–701), Gregory II (715–731), and Leo III, and baths were installed nearby. Five diaconiae, or offices, for the deacons who cared for the poor were established. The first, in honor of SS. Sergius and Baccus, was on the north side in the Palace of Charlemagne (palatium Caroli); a second, in honor of St. Mary, stood in caput Portici, or, near the Portico of the basilica. Pope Stephen II built a hospice on the spot where the obelisk now stands in front of St. Peter's, and this housed the diaconia of St. Silvester in the 8th century. It was demolished by Pope Pius IV (1560–1565). A fourth diaconia stood near the Castel'Angelo and was first called the Hadrianum, later Santa Maria in Transpontina; it was destroyed in the 15th century. A fifth diaconia was also situated near the Portico, called St. Martino de Custina.

Scholae, or Hostels, for Pilgrims. Hostels were also founded for pilgrims from different nations. The oldest was erected by King Ine of Wessex (727–730), according to Matthew of Paris, whereas William of Malmesbury credits Offa of Mercia; it was called the schola Saxonum for the English, or Saxons. The schola Francorum with a chapel called S. Salvatore di Ferrione occupied a site on which the Holy Office now stands. The schola Frisorum for German and Flemish pilgrims stood on the present site of S. Maria in Campo Santo; while the schola Langobadorum is credited to Ansa, the wife of King Desiderius, and dates from c. 770. The chapel of SS. Michele e Magno, left of Bernini's colonnade, marks the foundation of the schola Frisorum. The Hungarian hospice was called "de Aguila" (needle) from the obelisk

that stood nearby; it was built over the old monastery of St. Stephen on the site of the present sacristy.

Leonine Wall. Pope Leo IV (847–855) built a wall around the Vatican using plans that originated with the Emperor Lothair after the sack of Rome by the Saracens in 846. Called the Leonine wall, it was two and onequarter Roman miles long and was pierced by 48 towers and three gates. Innocent III (1198–1216) built a fortified wall within the perimter of the older construction, and one of its towers, identified in 1947, was incorporated in the palace of Nicholas III (1277–1280).

Early Papal Palaces. In the 6th century Pope Symmachus I had built two small residences on either side of the basilica for brief stays connected with ceremonies or functions in St. Peter's; and Charlemagne constructed a palace (palatium Caroli ) for his subjects during his stay in Rome (c. 800). Leo III, Eugene III (1153), and Innocent III reconstructed one of the Symmachan edifices that was further fortified with a wall by Leo IV. But it was Nicholas III who began the series of constructions known today as the papal palaces. Two of his decorated buildings were incorporated into the present palace, and their remains can be seen in the Sala dei Paramenti, Sala dei Pontifici, and Cubiculo di Niccolo V on the first floor, and in the halls of Chiaroscuro and of Constantine on the second floor. He also built a rectangular chapel that underlies the present Sistine Chapel; its gardens are occupied today by the court of the Belvedere.

THE RENAISSANCE

A new era of construction and decoration was introduced with the Renaissance. Nicholas V (1447–1455) added a fortified bastion to the north and west walls of the palace of Nicholas III. He built a chapel in which Fra Angelico (Giovanni di Fiesola) painted the pictures of SS. Stephen and Lawrence. Paul II (1458–1464) constructed the stairway from the courtyard at St. Damasus to that of the Pappagallo.

The New St. Peter's. The idea to construct a new St. Peter's basilica to replace the Constantinian one was first effectively broached under Pope Nicholas V when the architect Leon Battista Alberti discovered that the south wall had a list some five feet off perpendicular and that the frescoes of the south side of the central nave were some three-and-a-half feet off alignment. Nicholas commissioned Bernardo Rossellino in 1452 to construct a new apse for the basilica, to the west of the old one, but the work stopped on the pope's death. Paul II gave the project to Julian da Sangallo in 1470, and Sixtus IV (1471–1484) ordered the construction of a new baldachino over the altar.

Bramante. According to a plan submitted by Donato Bramante the new church was to be erected in the form of a Greek cross with a square area in the center surmounted by a dome and four smaller cupolas on the four corners. Julius II laid the cornerstone on April 18, 1506. The new church was to be constructed in two stages: the apse and altar of the old basilica were preserved from immediate

demolition; eventually under Antonio da Sangallo (1534–1546) they were shut off by a wall and served as a temporary church. Bramante tore down the nave of Constantine's church and without excavating dug emplacements for the four great pilasters upholding the new cupola. After Bramante's death in 1514 Leo X gave the project to the care of Raphael, Fra Giovanni Giocondo, and Julian da Sangallo, who changed the plan from a Greek to a Latin cross, constituted by a nave of three arches to be separated by pilasters.

Michelangelo. After the sack of Rome in 1527 Antonio da Sangallo assumed full charge under Paul III (1534–1549). The latter commissioned Michelangelo Buonarroti as architect in chief in 1546, and despite criticism of the changes he made in the original plans, Michelangelo was confirmed in this position by Julius II in 1552, and by Pius IV in 1561. Having almost completed the drum of the cupola before his death in 1564, Michelangelo was succeeded by Pirro Ligorio and Vignola (James Barozzi). The latter was placed in charge of the project by Gregory XIII (1572–1585), and the dome was completed under pressure from Sixtus V (1585–1590), who also had Domenico Fontana move the Egyptian obelisk from the spot near the sacristy to the center of the piazza in 1586.

Under Clement VIII (1592–1605) the old apse was pulled down and a new High Altar was constructed directly over the altar built by Callistus II. Likewise the pavement of the new basilica was laid some 15 feet above the level of the old Constantinian Church. Under Paul V (1605–1621) Carlo Maderno extended the eastern arm of the apse in such fashion as to emphasize the Latin-cross plan. Completed in 1615, the new edifice measured 613 feet in length; the facade was 377 feet in breadth and 151 feet high; the atrium was 233 feet long, 42 feet wide, and 65 feet high and decorated with Giotto's Navicella.

Giovanni Bernini. Paul V had a large area excavated in front of the main altar to constitute an open area or court with colored marble and bronze statues of Peter and Paul. It opens into the Confessio of St. Peter, which contained a window allowing objects to be lowered down to the Constantinian monument over the grave of St. Peter. After the election of Urban VIII (1623–1644), Giovanni Bernini undertook the construction of a new baldachino, or canopy, over the main altar. In gilded bronze, this canopy is 92 feet high and is held up by four pillars modeled on the original Constaninian columns were used to decorate the four loggias on the upper portions of the pilasters facing the altar, which were also decorated by Bernini. The lower sections contain four niches filled by heroicsized statues of SS. Longinus, Helena, Veronica, and Andrew the Apostle.

The marble decoration of the basilica's interior and the medallions representing the first 40 popes and 28 allegories of virtues were also the work of Bernini commissioned by Innocent X (1644–1655). Bernini designed the pavement of the basilica and the heroic statue of Constantine as well as the immense bronze cathedra at the base of the apse, which rests on the statues of the four great doctors of the Church, SS. Ambrose, Augustine, Athanasius, and John Chrysostom. Finally under Alexander VII (1655–1567) Bernini turned attention to the exterior, and between 1657 and 1663 erected the two semicircular sets of colonnades that enclasp the Piazza of St., Peter with four rows of 284 travertine columns on the balustrade, over which stand 140 heroic statutes of martyrs and confessors. In the piazza itself to the left of the obelisk he replaced the fountain of Innocent VIII; that on the right is the work of Carlo Fontana commissioned by Clement X in 1670.

Vatican Library and Archives. Independent of the construction of St. Peter's Sixtus IV renovated rooms and built other edifices. Though the idea to establish a place for a vatican library was conceived by Nicholas in 1450, it was officially established by Sixtus IV by the papal bull, Ad decorum militantis Ecclesiae in 1475. He initially renovated three rooms, and later another one, on the ground floor of the Apostolic Palace to house the collection. Julius II (1503–1513) added rooms and Sixtus V had Domenico Fontana design a new building that divided the Belvedere courtyard from the Pigna courtyard. The top floor has a magnificent hall (184 feet long and 57 feet wide) that became known as the Sistine Library. In 1587, Sixtus V (1585–1590) moved the printing worked founded by Pius IV (1559–1565) in 1561. This act began the Vatican Press.

In 1612 Paul V created a separate archives section by bringing together materials from the library of Castel Sant'Angelo, the Apostolic Camera, and other official offices. This new section began the Vatican Secret Archives, located in rooms under the tower of Gregory XIII's observatory.

Sistine Chapel. Sixtus IV (1471–1484) commissioned Giovanni dei Dolci to erect the Sistine chapel on the site of the cappella magna built in the palace of Nicholas III (1277–1280) and used by the popes as a chapel until 1477. In 1481 Perugino, Botticelli, Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli signed a contract to paint ten biblical stories. The chapel was consecrated in 1483. Paul III (1534–1549) encouraged Michelangelo to decorate its ceiling with the magnificent story of Creation and the Last Judgment, completed between 1536 and 1541.

Other Developments. Under Julius II, Donato Bramante completed the north facade of the Belvedere palace, adding two loggias, and the extensive corridor holding the Chiaramonti galleries and Lapidaria, while Raphael supplied a third loggia. Raphael also painted the rooms of the signatura, the Heliodorus, and the loggias overlooking the courtyard of the Maresciallo.

Antonio de Sangallo built the Sala Regia for Paul III; it was decorated by Giorgio Vasari, Thaddeus Zuccaro, and the Della Portas. Sangallo also erected the Pauline chapel for the same Pope, who had it ornamented with scenes from the lives of SS. Peter and Paul by Michelangelo between 1542 and 1550. The corridor of the Belvedere was completed under Pius IV who erected the building known as the Casino of Pius IV in the Vatican Gardens. The chapels of SS. Stephen, Michael, and Peter were begun under the patronage of Pius V (1566–1672) and decorated with paintings by Vasari and stucco ornaments by James della Porta. Julius Mazzoni and Daniel della Volterra painted the chapel of the Swiss guards.

The famous Gallery of the Maps, containing the topography of the regions of Italy in the Dominican Ignatius Danti's designs, stems from the reign of Gregory XIII (1572–1585), who likewise commissioned the wing enclosing the courtyard of St. Damasus and the Tower of the Winds. Sixtus V (1585–1590) erected the present papal residence on the extreme eastern end of the court of Damasus, using Domenico Fontana as architect. He likewise cut the Belvedere courtyard in two with a new wing for the Vatican Library. Giovanni and Cherubino Alberti painted the Clementine hall under Clement VIII (1592–1605); and Paul Bril decorated the hall of Consistories. The new entrance to the papal palace with it s famous bronze doors was designed by Martin Ferrabosco and James Vasanzio.

The chapel of Countess Matilda decorated by Peter of Cortona was executed under Urban VIII (1623–1644); Alexander VII (1655–1667) had the Sala Regia united with the Sala Ducale; and Clement XII (1730–1740) added another wing to the Vatican Library. Benedict XIV (1740–1758) joined the Museum of Christian Antiquity, called the Museo Sacro, to the library, and Clement XIII built the Gallery of the Candelabra.

MODERN

The Nineteenth Century and the Vatican Museums. The modern Pio-Clementine Museum, on north side of Vatican City, consists of the Porch of the Four Doors, the Simonetti Staircase, Hall of the Greek Cross, Rotunda, Hall of the Muses, Hall of the Animals, Octagonal Courtyard, Cabinet of the Masks, and Room of the Busts, and is due to popes Clement XIV (1769–1774) and Pius VI (1775–1799). Pius VII (1800–1823) commissioned the Chiaramonti Museum, and Gregory XIV (1823–1846) erected the Egyptian, Estruscan, and Gregorian Museums on the north side of the court of the Pigna. Pius IX (1846–1878) constructed the staircase leading to the Court of St. Damasus from the bronze doors of the papal palace on the right side of the Piazza of St. Peter's; he also built the Hall of the Immaculate Conception. Leo XIII (1878–1903) built the Gallery of the Chandeliers, and erected the Vatican Observatory on a height over-looking the Vatican Gardens. Leo XIII decreed in 1881 that the archives be open to researchers. Records are made available from the beginning until a pontificate has been catalogued. This will soon include the reign of Pius XI. Accessibility is also governed by standard archival norms.

The Twentieth Century. Pius X (1903–1914) made a passage from the corridor of Bramante to the gardens and a stairway from the Holy Office to the Viale del Belvedere. Pius XI (1922–1939) modernized the Vatican Library in 1928 by installing an elevator, electricity, and some temperature controls. More shelves were added by renovating the stables that were no longer needed with the advent of the automobile. A new entrance was constructed that opened into the Belvedere courtyard. After signing the Lateran Treaty (1929) he remodeled the papal summer palace at Castelgondolfo and moved the papal Observatory there. Giuseppe Momo, a friend of Pius XI, designed the Ethiopian College, the Palazzo del Governatorato (built in 1930), and the railway station (inaugurated in 1933). Between the Palazzo and the back of St. Peter's Basilica is the Vatican Gardens; there is a large flower arrangement of the coat of arms of the reigning pope. Pius XI also erected a post office (stamps have been issued by the Vatican since 1852); he constructed the buildings housing the tribunals, Annona store, and L'Osservatore Romano (the Vatican newspaper). Vatican Radio was established in 1931 with the assistance of Guglielmo Marconi; broadcasts are given in 34 languages. A new entrance to the Vatican Museums was completed in 1932.

Pius XII (1939–1958) restored the offices of the Secretariat of State and founded a television station together with a more powerful radio station near Santa Maria di Galleria in 1957. He authorized the excavation under St. Peter's, which led to the project for a resystematization of the sacred grottos underneath the present pavement of the basilica.

In 1960, during the reign of John XXIII (1958–1963), the entire territory of the Vatican was inscribed in the International Register of Cultural Works under Special Protection in case of Armed Conflict by the United Nations. The commencement of the Second Vatican Council involved intensive preparations, especially the installation of tiers of benches for the bishops on both sides of the main aisle of St. Peter's basilica and other provisions. John XXIII also renovated the tower containing the radio station and built a papal retreat in as second tower of the ancient Leonine wall on the north side of the gardens. John XXIII was the first pope to use the Vatican railway station for a pilgrimage to Assisi in 1962, a week before the Vatican Council began.

Paul VI (1963–1978) built the Museum of Modern Religious Art. He also constructed a modern audience hall that was completed in 1971 and holds over 9,000 people.

One of the first additions by John Paul II (1978–) was the Mater Ecclesiae mosaic on the exterior wall of the Apostolic Palace in 1981 that commemorated his survival from an assassination attempt in St. Peter's square. An extensive project was undertaken in the 1980s and completed in 1994 to clean the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. John Paul II had a hospice built in 1989 at the request of mother theresa of Calcutta. The hospice, which houses over 70 women and provides evening meals to hundreds, is managed by the missionaries of charity. Some improvements were made in the Vatican in preparation for the Jubilee Year 2000, including renovations to the entrance of the Vatican museums in 1999 and cleaning the facade of the basilica of St. Peter's.

Bibliography: m. guarducci, "La Data del Martirio di San Pietro," La Parola del Passato 23 (1968) 81–117; Le Chiavi sulla Pietra (Rome 1995). j. m. packard, Peter's Kingdom: Inside the Papal City (New York 1985). a. m. stickler, The Vatican Library: Its History and Treasures (Vatican City 1989). j. e. walsh, The Bones of St. Peter (Manila 1987). n. suffi, St. Peter's (Vatican City 1998).

[f. x. murphy/

c. kosanke]