Funeral rites. From extremely early times (and possibly even among the Neanderthals), archaeology reveals that humans have treated the bodies of the dead with care and respect. However, despite much speculation, it is not possible to state what beliefs about the status of the dead accompanied these early practices. By the time texts mediate beliefs about the dead, it is clear that almost universally there was no belief that there would be a worthwhile life after death. The funeral rites of the major world religions now express and reflect the consequence of subsequent human experience and reflection in which a continuity of life beyond death is clearly more probable, and is certainly a matter of faith expressed through the rituals and liturgies.

On the importance of being buried/cremated in particular places see KAŚI; KARBALĀʾ; MASHHAD. See also DEATH; CREMATION; RITES OF PASSAGE.

Judaism

In biblical times, the dead were buried preferably near their family graves—hence the expression, ‘slept with his fathers’. Traditionally, men are buried wrapped in their tallit, and coffins were not used until the Middle Ages. Different communities observe different burial practices, but normally the coffin is escorted to the grave and Kaddish is recited. Burial in the land of Israel is a desideratum, but failing that, earth from Israel should be placed on the head or under the body. Among Reform Jews, embalming and cremation are permitted.

Christian

Christian respect for the body, and expectation of its resurrection, derive from the resurrection of Christ. Cremation was opposed and eventually became exceptional.

Opposition to cremation began to erode at the end of the 19th cent., and is now common; the prohibition against it among Roman Catholics was lifted in 1963, and is now allowed provided it is not done for reasons contrary to the Christian faith.

Islam

Jināza/janāza refers to the stretcher and to the corpse on it, and thus to the funeral itself. The Qurʾān gives no detail, but much description occurs in ḥadīth, and fiqh is extremely detailed in its prescription. Generally speaking, burials should be carried out as speedily as possible. As soon as a Muslim is dead, he is laid on the stretcher with the head facing the qibla. The ghusl then takes place, and the body is covered in a shroud or shrouds (the number is disputed). Ṣalāt is then said over the dead person, and if possible there should be recitation of the Qurʾān, or at least of sūra 6. Mourning is restricted, because it disturbs the dead—though in practice lamentation (niyaha) occurs. Forty days later, a family commemoration is held (al-Arbaʿayn, ‘the Forty’).

Hinduism

see ANTYEṢṬĪ.

Buddhism

Disposal of the body is preferably by cremation. An important feature is the interaction between officiants (e.g. bhikṣus) and family, with gifts and transfer of puṇya. The leave-taking and rituals may take place over several days (e.g., six in Sri Lanka). Observances follow on the completion of three, and of six months, and sometimes at the anniversary.

Sikhism

When a Sikh dies prayers (especially sukhmāni sāhib) are said for the deceased. The body, washed and dressed and wearing the five Ks, is cremated. During cremation Kīrtan Sohilā (the bedtime prayer) is recited. At home or in the gurdwārā verses about death are read from the Ādi Granth and the service concludes with Ardās, a hukam, and kaṛāh praśād. Sikhs are to accept death as God's will and as a stage in the progress to him. Elaborate displays of mourning or of grief are therefore discouraged.

Chinese

Most dead exist in perpetuity in the rituals of the living family. Usually the dead gain immortality of memory in the family unit, periodic offerings, and possible assistance of the ‘soul’ (in Buddhist judgement); the family gains kinship cohesion by filial respect and blessings by the rites. Traditionally, the dead are buried with ming chi (spirit articles), a sustenance of some kind such as the urns and human sacrifices of the archaeological sites, or the burning of modern paper items of money and necessities. Thereafter, they are periodically offered incense and food in the family or hall shrines. The grave is carefully chosen according to the yin and yang ‘geomantic’ influences of feng shui, and the body is often buried in a coffin, later disinterred, the bones put in a pot in the open air, and finally buried in the pot. These rites and relationships vary considerably by location and historical period.