LIBYA

Compiled from the November 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-LIBYAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1, 759, 540 million sq. km.

Cities: Capital—Tripoli (1984 pop est. 990,000). Other—Benghazi (1984 pop est. 485,000).

Terrain: Mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions.

Climate: Mediterranean along coast; dry, extreme desert interior.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Libyan(s).

Population: (July 2001 est.) 5,240,599 (includes 662,669 non-nationals, of which an estimated 500,000 or more are sub-Saharan Africans living in Libya.

Annual growth rate: (2001 est.) 2.42%.

Ethnic groups: Berber and Arab 97%; Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, and Tunisians.

Religion: Sunni Muslim 97%

Languages: Arabic, Italian, English, all are widely understood in major cities.

Education: Years compulsory—9. Attendance — 90%. Literacy—72.2%.

Health: (2001 est.) Infant mortality rate—27.67/1,000. Life expectancy—male, 73.53 yrs.; female, 77.88 yrs.

Work force: (2000 est.) 1.5 million, an estimated 500,000 of whom are Sub-Saharan African foreign workers. By occupation (1997 est.) Industry—29%;

services and government—54%; agriculture—17%.

Government

Official name: Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.

Type: "Jamahiriya," is a term Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi coined and which he defines as a "state of the masses" governed by the populace through local councils. In fact, the Libyan state is a military dictatorship.

Independence: December 24, 1951. Revolution: September 1, 1969.

Constitution: December 11, 1969, amended March 2, 1977 — established popular congresses and people's committees.

Administrative divisions: 25 municipalities (singular-, "baladiyah"" plural – "baladiyat") Ajdabiya, Al'Aziziyah, Al'Fatih, Al Jabal al-Akhdar, Al Jufrah, Al Khums, Al Kufrah, An Nuqat al Khams, Ash Shati', Awbari, Az Zawiyyah, Benghazi, Darnah, Ghadamis, Gharyan, Misratah, Murzuq, Sabha, Sawfajjin, Surt, Tarabulus, Tarhunah, Tubruq, Yafran, Zlitan.

Political system: Political parties are banned. According to the political theory of Col. Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi, multi-layered popular assemblies (people's congresses) with executive institutions (people's committees) are guided by political cadres (revolutionary committees).

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory.

Economy

GDP: (2000 est.) $45.4 billion.

Per capita GDP: (2000 est.) $8,900.

Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, gypsum.

Agriculture: Products — wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle; approximately 75% of Libya's food is imported.

Industry: Types — petroleum, food processing, textiles, handicrafts, cement.

Trade: Exports (2000 est.)—$13.9 billion: crude oil, refined petroleum products. Major markets (1999)—Italy (33%),Germany (24%), Spain (10%), France (5%), Turkey (4%), Tunisia (4%). Imports (2000 est.)—$7.6 billion: machinery, transport equipment, food, manufactured goods. Major suppliers (1999)—Italy (24%), Germany (12%), Tunisia (9%), UK (7%), France (6%), South Korea (5%)

PEOPLE

Libya has a small population in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per sq. km. (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per sq. km. (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. More than half the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. Fifty percent of the population is estimated to be under age 15.

Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers. Small Tebou and Touareg tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or semi-nomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians and Tunisians), West Africans and Sub-Saharan Africans. Specific numbers are not available.

HISTORY

For most of their history, the peoples of Libya have been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control. The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines ruled all or parts of Libya. Although the Greeks and Romans left impressive ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna, and Sabratha, little else remains today to testify to the presence of these ancient cultures.

The Arabs conquered Libya in the seventh century A.D. In the following centuries, most of the indigenous peoples adopted Islam and the Arabic language and culture. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century. Libya remained part of their empire—although at times virtually autonomous—until Italy invaded in 1911 and, in the face of years of resistance, made Libya a colony.

In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony, which consisted of the Provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars. From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal in 1947 of some aspects of foreign control. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.

On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. King Idris I represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. When Libya declared its independence on December 24, 1951, it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first former European possessions in Africa to gain independence. Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and a hereditary monarchy under King Idris.

The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled what had been one of the world's poorest countries to become extremely wealthy, as measured by per capita GDP. Although oil drastically improved Libya's finances, popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise throughout the Arab world of Nasserism and the idea of Arab unity.

On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer Mu'ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi staged a coup d'état against King Idris, who was exiled to Egypt. The new regime, headed by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi emerged as leader of the RCC and eventually as de facto chief of state, a political role he still plays. The Libyan Government asserts that Qadhafi currently holds no official position, although he is referred to in government statements and the official press as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution."

The new RCC's motto became "freedom, socialism, and unity." It pledged itself to remedy "backwardness," take an active role in the Palestinian Arab cause, promote Arab unity, and encourage domestic policies based on social justice, non-exploitation, and an equitable distribution of wealth.

An early objective of the new government was withdrawal of all foreign military installations from Libya. Following negotiations, British military installations at Tobruk and nearby El Adem were closed in March 1970, and U.S. facilities at Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli were closed in June 1970. That July, the Libyan Government ordered the expulsion of several thousand Italian residents. By 1971, libraries and cultural centers operated by foreign governments were ordered closed.

In the 1970's, Libya claimed leadership of Arab and African revolutionary forces and sought active roles in international organizations. Late in the 1970s, Libyan embassies were redesignated as "people's bureaus," as Qadhafi sought to portray Libyan foreign policy as an expression of the popular will. The people's bureaus, aided by Libyan religious, political, educational, and business institutions overseas, exported Qadhafi's revolutionary philosophy abroad.

Qadhafi's confrontational foreign policies and use of terrorism, as well as Libya's growing friendship with the U.S.S.R., led to increased tensions with the West in the 1980's. Following a terrorist bombing at a discotheque in West Berlin frequented by American military personnel, in 1986 the U.S. retaliated militarily against targets in Libya, and imposed broad unilateral economic sanctions.

After Libya was implicated in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. UN Security Council resolutions (UNSCR) passed in 1992 and 1993 obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted. Qadhafi initially refused to comply with these requirements, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the 1990s.

In 1999, Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the Netherlands. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. Al-Megrahi's conviction was upheld on appeal in 2002. In August 2003, Libya fulfilled the remaining UNSCR requirements, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation to the victims' families. UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003. U.S. sanctions against Libya remain in place.

GOVERNMENT

Libya's political system is theoretically based on the political philosophy in Qadhafi's Green Book, which combines socialist and Islamic theories and rejects parliamentary democracy and political parties. In reality, Qadhafi exercises near total control over the government.

For the first 7 years following the revolution, Colonel Qadhafi and 12 fellow army officers, the Revolutionary Command Council, began a complete overhaul of Libya's political system, society and economy. On March 3, 1977, Qadhafi convened a General People's Congress (GPC) to proclaim the establishment of "people's power," change the country's name to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and to vest, theoretically, primary authority in the GPC.

Qadhafi remained the de facto chief of state and secretary general of the GPC until 1980, when he gave up his office. He continues to control all aspects of the Libyan Government through direct appeals to the masses, a pervasive security apparatus, and powerful revolutionary committees. Although he holds no formal office, Qadhafi exercises absolute power with the assistance of a small group of trusted advisers, who include relatives from his home base in the Surt region, which lies between the rival provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica.

The Libyan court system consists of four levels: summary courts, which try petty offenses, the courts of first instance, which try more serious crimes; the courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court, which is the final appellate level. The GPC appoints justices to the Supreme Court. Special "revolutionary courts" and military courts operate outside the court system to try political offenses and crimes against the state. Libya's justice system is nominally based on Sharia law.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

After the revolution, Qadhafi took increasing control of the government, but he also attempted to achieve greater popular participation in local government. In 1973, he announced the start of a "cultural revolution" in schools, businesses, industries, and public institutions to oversee administration of those organizations in the public interest. The March 1977 establishment of "people's power"—with mandatory popular participation in the selection of representatives to the GPC —was the culmination of this process.

The GPC is the legislative forum that interacts with the General People's Committee, whose members are secretaries of Libyan ministries. It serves as the intermediary between the masses and the leadership and is composed of the secretariats of some 600 local "basic popular congresses."

The GPC secretariat and the cabinet secretaries are appointed by the GPC secretary general and confirmed by the annual GPC congress. These cabinet secretaries are responsible for the routine operation of their ministries, but Qadhafi exercises real authority directly or through manipulation of the peoples and revolutionary committees.

In the 1980s, competition grew between the official Libyan Government and military hierarchies and the revolutionary committees. An abortive coup attempt in May 1984, apparently mounted by Libyan exiles with internal support, led to a short-lived reign of terror in which thousands were imprisoned and interrogated. An unknown number were executed. Qadhafi used the revolutionary committees to search out alleged internal opponents following the coup attempt, thereby accelerating the rise of more radical elements inside the Libyan power hierarchy.

In 1988, faced with rising public dissatisfaction with shortages in consumer goods and setbacks in Libya's war with Chad, Qadhafi began to curb the power of the revolutionary committees and to institute some domestic reforms. The regime released many political prisoners and eased restrictions on foreign travel by Libyans. Private businesses were again permitted to operate.

In the late 1980s, Qadhafi began to pursue an anti-Islamic fundamentalist policy domestically, viewing fundamentalism as a potential rallying point for opponents of the regime. Ministerial positions and military commanders are frequently shuffled or placed under temporary house arrest to diffuse potential threats to Qadhafi's authority.

Despite these measures, internal dissent continues. Qadhafi's security forces launched a pre-emptive strike at alleged coup plotters in the military and among the Warfallah tribe in October 1993. Widespread arrests and government reshufflings followed, accompanied by public "confessions" from regime opponents and allegations of torture and executions. The military, once Qadhafi's strongest supporters, became a potential threat in the 1990's. In 1993, following a failed coup attempt that implicated senior military officers, Qadhafi began to purge the military periodically, eliminating potential rivals and inserting his own loyal followers in their place.

Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 10/17/03

Col. Muammar al-Qadhafi has no official title, but he runs Libya and is the de facto chief of state. The Secretary of the General People's Congress is chief of state in theory but is not treated as such. The Secretary of the General People's Committee plays the role of prime minister.

Leader: Qadhafi, Muammar Abu Minyar al-, Col.

Sec. of the Gen. People's Congress:

Zanati, Muhammad al-

Asst. Sec. of the Gen. People's Congress:

Ibrahim, Ahmad Mohamed Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee (Prime Minister): Ghanim, Shukri Muhammad

Dep. Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee: Badri, Abdallah Salim al-

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Economy & Trade: Bilkhayr, Abd al-Qadir

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Finance: Burayni, al-Ujayli Abd al-Salam al-

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Foreign Liaison & International Cooperation: Shalgam, Abd al-Rahman

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Justice & Public Security: Masirati, Mohamed Ali al-

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Planning: al-Juhaymi, al-Tahriri al-Hadi

Sec. of the Gen. People's Committee for Tourism: al-Tayf, Ammar al-Mabruk

Governor, Central Bank: Hamid, Ahmed Munaysi Abd al-

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Turayki, Ali Abd al-Salam al-

ECONOMY

The government dominates Libya's socialist-oriented economy through complete control of the country's oil resources, which account for approximately 95% of export earnings, 75% of government receipts, and 30% of the gross domestic product. Oil revenues constitute the principal source of foreign exchange. Much of the country's income has been lost to waste, corruption, conventional armaments purchases, and attempts to develop weapons of mass destruction, as well as to large donations made to developing countries in attempts to increase Qadhafi's influence in Africa and elsewhere. Although oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa, the government's mismanagement of the economy has led to high inflation and increased import prices, resulting in a decline in the standard of living.

Libya's gross domestic product grew in 2001 due to high oil prices, the end of a long cyclical drought, and increased foreign investment following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999.

Despite efforts to diversify the economy and encourage private sector participation, extensive controls of prices, credit, trade, and foreign exchange constrain growth. Import restrictions and inefficient resource allocations have caused periodic short ages of basic goods and foodstuffs.

Although agriculture is the second-largest sector in the economy, Libya depends on imports in most foods. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit output, while higher incomes and a growing population have caused food consumption to rise. Domestic food production meets about 25% of demand.

The U.S. Government has prohibited the importation of Libyan crude oil into the United States since March 1982, as well as strict controls on U.S.-origin goods intended for export to Libya. On January 7, 1986, the U.S. imposed economic sanctions against Libya which broadly prohibit U.S. persons from engaging in unauthorized financial transactions involving Libya, including, in part, the following: the export to Libya of all goods, services, or technology; the import of goods or services of Libyan origin; engaging in the performance of a contract in support of an industrial, commercial, or government project in Libya; or dealing in any property in which the Government of Libya has any interest. The economic sanctions also prohibit U.S. persons from working in Libya.

Although UN sanctions were suspended in 1999 and lifted in 2003, foreign investment in the Libyan gas and oil sectors has been severely curtailed due to the United States' Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA), which caps the amount any foreign company can invest in Libya yearly at $20 million (lowered from $40 million in 2001).

Editor's Update
April 2004

A report on important events that have taken place since the last State Department revision of this Background Note.

After nine months of secret negotiations between Libya and the United Kingdom, Libya announced in December 2003 that it had been producing weapons of mass destruction, but agreed to halt the program and submit to international inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). In January 2004 it was revealed that Pakistan's former top nuclear scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, had been involved in an international network of clandestine nuclear proliferation from Pakistan to Libya, Iran, and North Korea, including the sharing of secret designs for centrifuges capable of producing weapons-grade uranium. After its decision to halt attempts to procure and develop weapons of mass destruction, Libya called on the United States to repeal its 17-year old sanctions regime, saying it was costing Libya's economy $3 billion a year.

In another recent effort taken by Libya to rejoin the international community, Libya announced in February 2004 that it accepted responsibility for the bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988, and agreed to pay retributions. Libya agreed to pay $2.7 billion, or $10 million for each victim's family, and hoped that that decision would lead to the lifting of UN and U.S. sanctions. The United States stated Libya's actions would only satisfy the minimum requirements for lifting UN sanctions, but that they would not trigger a lifting of U.S. sanctions, due in part to Libya's poor human rights record, lack of democratic institutions, and a disruptive role in perpetuating regional conflicts in Africa.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since 1969, Qadhafi has determined Libya's foreign policy. His principal foreign policy goals have been Arab unity, elimination of Israel, advancement of Islam, support for Palestinians, elimination of outside—particularly Western—influence in the Middle East and Africa, and support for a range of "revolutionary" causes.

After the 1969 coup, Qadhafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized all foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting the use of oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West—especially the United States—to end support for Israel. Qadhafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism, and claimed we was charting a middle course.

Libya's relationship with the former Soviet Union involved massive Libyan arms purchases from the Soviet bloc and the presence of thousands of east bloc advisers. Libya's use—and heavy loss—of Soviet-supplied weaponry in its war with Chad was a notable breach of an apparent Soviet-Libyan understanding not to use the weapons for activities inconsistent with Soviet objectives. As a result, Soviet-Libyan relations reached a nadir in mid-1987.

After the fall of the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union, Libya concentrated on expanding diplomatic ties with Third World countries and increasing its commercial links with Europe and East Asia. Following the imposition of UN sanctions in 1992, these ties significantly diminished. Following a 1998 Arab League meeting in which fellow Arab states decided not to challenge UN sanctions, Qadhafi announced that he was turning his back on pan-Arab ideas, one of the fundamental tenets of his philosophy.

Instead, Libya pursued closer bilateral ties, particularly with North African neighbors Egypt, Tunisia, and Morocco. It has also sought to develop its relations with Sub-Saharan Africa, leading to Libyan involvement in several internal African disputes in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Somalia, Central African Republic, Eritrea and Ethiopia. Libya has also sought to expand its influence in Africa through financial assistance, ranging from aid donations to impoverished neighbors such as Niger to oil subsidies to Zimbabwe. Qadhafi has proposed a borderless "United States of Africa" to transform the continent into a single nation-state ruled by a single government. This plan has been moderately well received, although more powerful would-be participants such as Nigeria and South Africa are skeptical.

Terrorism

There have been no credible reports of Libyan involvement in terrorism since 1994, and Libya has taken significant steps to mend its international image. In 1999, the Libyan government surrendered two Libyans suspected of involvement in the Pan Am 103 bombing, leading to the suspension of UN sanctions. On January 31, 2001, a Scottish court seated in the Netherlands found one of the suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, guilty of murder in connection with the bombing, and acquitted the second suspect, Al-Amin Kalifa Fhima. Megrahi's conviction was upheld on March 14, 2002.

UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003 following Libyan compliance with its remaining UNSCR requirements on Pan Am 103, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation. Libya paid compensation in 1999 for the death of British policewoman Yvonne Fletcher, a move that preceded the reopening of the British Embassy in Tripoli, and paid damages to the families of the victims in the bombing of UTA Flight 772.

On November 13, 2001, a German court found four persons, including a former employee of the Libyan embassy in East Berlin, guilty in connection with the 1986 La Belle disco bombing, in which two U.S. servicemen were killed. The court also established a connection to the Libyan government. The German government has demanded that Libya accept responsibility for the La Belle bombing and pay appropriate compensation.

U.S.-LIBYAN RELATIONS

The United States supported the UN resolution providing for Libyan independence in 1951 and raised the status of its office at Tripoli from a consulate general to a legation. Libya opened a legation in Washington, DC, in 1954. Both countries subsequently raised their missions to embassy level.

After Qadhafi's 1969 coup, U.S.-Libyan relations became increasingly strained because of Libya's foreign policies supporting international terrorism and subversion against moderate Arab and African governments. In 1972, the United States withdrew its ambassador. Export controls on military equipment and civil aircraft were imposed during the 1970s, and U.S. embassy staff members were withdrawn from Tripoli after a mob attacked and set fire to the embassy in December 1979. The U.S. Government declared Libya a "state sponsor of terrorism" on December 29, 1979.

In May 1981, the U.S. Government closed the Libyan "people's bureau" (embassy) in Washington, DC, and expelled the Libyan staff in response to a general pattern of conduct by the people's bureau contrary to internationally accepted standards of diplomatic behavior.

In August 1981, two Libyan jets fired on U.S. aircraft participating in a routine naval exercise over international waters of the Mediterranean claimed by Libya. The U.S. planes returned fire and shot down the attacking Libyan aircraft. In December 1981, the State Department invalidated U.S. passports for travel to Libya and, for purposes of safety, advised all U.S. citizens in Libya to leave. In March 1982, the U.S. Government prohibited imports of Libyan crude oil into the United States and expanded the controls on U.S.-origin goods intended for export to Libya. Licenses were required for all transactions, except food and medicine. In March 1984, U.S. export controls were expanded to prohibit future exports to the Ras al-Enf petrochemical complex. In April 1985, all Export-Import Bank financing was prohibited.

Due to Libya's continuing support for terrorism, the United States adopted additional economic sanctions against Libya in January 1986, including a total ban on direct import and export trade, commercial contracts, and travel-related activities. In addition, Libyan Government assets in the United States were frozen. When evidence of Libyan complicity was discovered in the Berlin discotheque terrorist bombing that killed an American serviceman, the United States responded by launching an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986. Since then, the United States has maintained its trade and travel embargoes and has sought to bring diplomatic and economic pressure to bear against Libya.

In 1988, Libya was found to be in the process of constructing a chemical weapons plant at Rabta, a plant which is now the largest such facility in the Third World. Libya is currently constructing another chemical weapons production facility at Tarhunah. Libya's support for terrorism and its past regional aggressions made this development a matter of major concern to the United States. In cooperation with like-minded countries, the United States has since sought to bring a halt to the foreign technical assistance deemed essential to the completion of this facility.

In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. In January 1992, the UN Security Council approved Resolution 731 demanding that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSCR 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to passage of UNSCR 883—a limited assets freeze and an embargo on selected oil equipment—in November 1993.

Promulgated in 1996, the Iran and Libya Sanctions Act (ILSA) sought to penalize non-U.S. companies which in vest more than $40 million in Libya's oil and gas sector in any one year. ILSA was renewed in 2001, and the investment cap lowered to $20 million.

Libya refused to comply with any of its UNSCR requirements on Pan Am 103 until 1999, when it turned over two suspects for trial by a Scottish court in the Netherlands. UN sanctions were subsequently suspended. UN sanctions were lifted on September 12, 2003 after Libya fulfilled all remaining UNSCR requirements, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation to the victims' families. US sanctions remain in force.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet
January 9, 2004

Country Description: Officially known as the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Libya has a developing economy. Islamic ideals and beliefs provide the conservative foundation of the country's customs, laws, and practices. Tourist facilities are not widely available.

Entry Requirements: Passports and visas are required. On December 11, 1981, U.S. passports ceased to be valid for travel to, in, or through Libya and may not be used for that purpose without a special validation. Please see paragraphs below on Passport Validation and U.S. Treasury Economic Sanctions. Visa applications and inquiries must be made through a Libyan Embassy in a third country. Under certain circumstances such as a family visit or business meeting, a person may apply for a visa at the Libyan Mission to the United Nations in New York. The land borders with Egypt and Tunisia are subject to periodic closures even to travelers having valid Libyan visas. Short-term closures of other land borders occur with little notice. Within three days of arrival, visitors must register at the police station closest to where they are residing or they may encounter problems during their stay or upon departure.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure. Foreign women will be asked by Libyan authorities to present a letter of consent signed by their Libyan husband if they apply for an exit visa for themselves and their children.

Dual Nationality: In addition to being subject to all Libyan laws affecting U.S. citizens, individuals who also possess the nationality of Libya may be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on Libyan citizens, including use of a Libyan passport to enter and depart Libya. For additional information, please see the Consular Affairs home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov for our Dual Nationality flyer.

Safety and Security: Security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephones and fax machines may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Taking photographs of any thing that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with the authorities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet website at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings, including the Travel Warning for Libya, and Public Announcements can be found.

The Overseas Citizens Services call center at 1-888-407-4747 can answer general inquiries on safety and security overseas. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Crime: Crime is a growing problem in Libya. The most common types of crime are auto theft and theft of items left in vehicles, as well as burglaries. Increasing availability of drugs has led to an increase of crime in the past few years. Libya's beaches are the frequent sites of muggings and purse-snatchings. The loss or theft of a U.S. passport abroad should be reported immediately to the local police, the U.S. Interests Section at the Belgian Embassy in Tripoli, Libya, and the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate outside of Libya. The U.S. Interests Section located at the Belgian Embassy in Tripoli can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds can be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlets, A Safe Trip Abroad and Tips for Travelers to the Middle East and North Africa, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlets are available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, via the Internet at www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Basic modern medical care and medicines may not be available in Libya. The hospital with the best reputation in Libya is the "Oil Clinique-N.O.C." There is also a new Swiss clinic and a facility with French doctors, known as Medelink, but both are very small. Most Libyan citizens prefer to be treated outside of Libya for ailments such as heart disease and diabetes.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation, particularly as there are economic sanctions in place. (See paragraph on U.S. Treasury Sanctions). U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the United States may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses that you incur. However, please note the section on U.S. Treasury Sanctions, which may impact on the ability of insurers to provide payment and air ambulance services to provide assistance in Libya. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Libya is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Public transportation, which is limited to occasional bus service, is poor.
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Fair

The major streets in most cities are maintained properly as a matter of necessity since they are heavily trafficked. Many smaller side streets in urban areas, however, are in poor conditions and are seldom maintained.

Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor

The paved roads in rural areas are satisfactory, however, many rural roads are unpaved (i.e. dirt roads). Also, major highways along the seacoast and leading south merge into single-lane highways once they are outside the cities. These roads are heavily trafficked and precarious to navigate, especially at night and during the winter rainy season. The presence of sand deposits and domestic and wild animals that frequently cross these highways and rural roads make them even more hazardous. Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Availability of roadside assistance is extremely limited and offered only in Arabic. Inside urban areas and near the outskirts of major cities there is a greater possibility of assistance by police and emergency ambulance services although they are usually ill equipped to deal with serious injuries or accidents.

Driving in Libya may be hazardous, and there is a high accident rate. Police enforcement of traffic signs and laws is rare. As a result, it is often difficult to anticipate the actions of other drivers on Libyan streets and highways. Wind-blown sand can make roads impassable to all but four-wheel drive vehicles. Road conditions are poor, and public transportation, which is limited to occasional bus service, is poor. Taxis, which are available, are usually on a shared-basis. Rental cars are often old and poorly maintained, and they are not recommended for long-distance driving. The sidewalks in urban areas are often in bad condition, but pedestrians are able to use them.

For additional information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, please see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html. Please see also road safety information on Libya at http://www.arab.net/libya/transport/la_roads.html.

Aviation Safety Oversight: Commercial air service between the United States and Libya is prohibited by U.S. sanctions, although major European carriers have established regular routes. As there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers to the United States at present, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Libya's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the United States at tel. 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Passport Validation: Without the requisite validation, use of a U.S. passport for travel to, in, or through Libya may constitute a violation of 18 U.S.C. 1544, and may be punishable by a fine and/or imprisonment.

The categories of individuals eligible for consideration for a special passport validation are set forth in 22 C.F.R. 51.74 as noted below. Passport validation requests for Libya can be forwarded in writing to the following address:

Deputy Assistant Secretary for Passport Services
U.S. Department of State
2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, 3rd Floor
Washington, DC 20037
Attn: Office of Passport Policy and Advisory Services
Telephone: 202-663-2662
Fax: 202-663-2654

The request must be accompanied by supporting documentation according to the category under which validation is sought. Currently, the four categories of persons specified in 22 C.F.R. 51.74 as being eligible for consideration for passport validation are as follows:

1. Professional Reporters: This category includes full-time members of the eporting or writing staff of a newspaper, magazine or broadcasting network whose purpose for travel is to gather information about Libya for dissemination to the general public.
2. American Red Cross: An applicant in this category must establish that he or she is a representative of the American Red Cross or International Red Cross traveling pursuant to an officially-sponsored Red Cross mission.
3. Humanitarian Considerations: An applicant in this category must establish that his or her trip is justified by compelling humanitarian considerations or for family unification. At this time, "compelling humanitarian considerations" include situations where the applicant can document that an immediate family member is critically ill in Libya. Documentation concerning family illness must include the name and address of the relative, and be from that relative's physician attesting to the nature and the gravity of the illness. "Family unification" situations may include cases in which spouses or minor children are residing in Libya with and dependent on a Libyan national spouse or parent for their support.
4. National Interest: For this category, the applicant's request must be otherwise found to be in the national interest.

In all requests for passport validation for travel to Libya, applicants must submit their full name, date and place of birth, telephone number, and U.S. passport number and expiration date for themselves and all individuals requesting validations.

U.S. Treasury Sanctions: In addition to the restrictions on the use of a U.S. passport discussed above, all U.S. persons (defined as all U.S. citizens, permanent alien residents, wherever they are located, all people and organizations physically in the United States and all branches of U.S. organizations throughout the world) are subject to the Libyan Sanctions Regulations administered by the U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), which generally prohibit any dealings with any Government-of-Libya-owned or controlled entity and any commercial activity with Libya. For up-to-date information about the embargo on Libya, and for a list of Specially Designated Nationals already determined to be owned or controlled by the Government of Libya, please consult OFAC's home page on the Internet at http://www.treas.gov/ofac or via OFAC's Info-by Fax service 202-622-0077.

On January 7, 1986, the United States imposed economic sanctions against Libya, which broadly prohibit U.S. persons from engaging in unauthorized financial transactions involving Libya, including, in part, the following: the export to Libya of all goods, services, or technology; the import of goods or services of Libyan origin; engaging in the performance of a contract in support of an industrial, commercial, or governmental project in Libya; or dealing in any property in which the Government of Libya has any interest. The economic sanctions also prohibit U.S. persons from working in Libya.

In addition, these restrictions prohibit U.S. persons from engaging in unauthorized travel-related transactions to and within Libya. Please note, however, that transactions relating to travel for journalistic activity by persons regularly employed in such capacity by a news gathering organization are exempt from the prohibition. Please note as well that U.S. persons may engage in travel-related transactions for the sole purpose of visiting immediate family members in Libya, provided that the U.S. persons seeking to travel register with the Office of Foreign Assets Control or the U.S. Interests Section at the Embassy of Belgium in Tripoli. To register, U.S. persons who are potential travelers should provide (for each potential traveler - parents and children) the following information:

1. Name, date and place of birth of the person registering (including the name under which a registrant's most recent U.S. passport was issued, if that is different);
2. If applicable, place and date of birth of the registrant's naturalization as a U.S. citizen, and the number of the registrant's naturalization certificate, or, for permanent resident aliens, the alien registration number of the registrant's alien registration receipt card;
3. The name, relationship, and address of the immediate family member in Libya whose relationship forms the basis for the registrant's eligibility; and
4. The number and issue date of the registrant's current U.S. passport, and the most recent date on which the passport was validated by the U.S. Department of State for travel to Libya; or if the registrant does not hold a U.S. passport, the country issue date and number of the registrant's current passport.

Potential travelers should contact the Treasury Department at the following address and phone number:

Licensing Division
Office of Foreign Assets Control
U.S. Department of the Treasury
1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20220
Telephone 202-622-2480
Fax: 202-622-1657

Department of Commerce Controls: The U.S. Department of Commerce controls the export and reexport of U.S.-origin goods, technology or software whether such items are exported or re-exported by a U.S. person or a non-U.S. person. The Department of Commerce also controls the export to Libya of foreign manufactured items containing more than 10% U.S.-origin content. For further information about exports and re-exports, please contact the Department of Commerce as follows:

U.S. Department of Commerce
Bureau of Industry and Security
Office of Strategic Trade and Foreign Policy
15th and Pennsylvania Avenue
Washington, DC. 20230
Telephone 202-482-4196
Fax 202-482-6088

UN Sanctions: United Nations sanctions against Libya were lifted on September 12, 2003 after Libya complied with all UN Security Council demands related to the Lockerbie bombing; this included payment of compensation to the victims' families and acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials. Despite the lifting of UN sanctions, U.S. sanctions remain in place.

Customs Regulations: Libyan customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning the introduction into Libya or removal from Libya of firearms, religious materials, antiquities, medications, and currency. Importation of alcohol is forbidden. Any passenger arriving in Tripoli is required to bring into Libya a minimum of $500. This requirement is subject to a border check, and the passenger faces possible deportation if this requirement is not met. It is advisable to contact any Embassy of Libya abroad for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Special Circumstances: Libya's economy operates on a "cash-only" basis for most transactions. ATM machines are non-existent. Foreign visitors should be aware that the penalties for use of unauthorized currency dealers are severe. Foreign visitors should also be aware that their passports might be confiscated in business disputes. There is a Sunday-Thursday workweek.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Libya's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs are severe in Libya, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences, heavy fines, and/or flogging or other physical punishment.

Family and Children's Issues: Children under 18 whose fathers are Libyan must have the father's permission to depart Libya, even if the mother has been granted full custody by a Libyan court. Women and children are often subjected to strict family controls; on occasion, families of Libyan-American women visiting Libya have attempted to prevent them from leaving the country. Young, single women are most likely to encounter opposition from their families when trying to leave. Finally, a Libyan husband is permitted to take legal action to prevent his wife from leaving the country, regardless of her nationality.

For information on international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://www.travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone the Overseas Citizens Services call center at 1-888-407-4747. The OCS call center can answer general inquiries regarding international parental abductions or adoptions and will forward calls to the appropriate officer in the Bureau of Consular Affairs. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/U.S Interests Section Location: There is no U.S. Embassy in Libya. The U.S. Government is not in a position to accord normal consular protective services to U.S. citizens in Libya. U.S. Government interests are represented by the Government of Belgium, which, as a protecting power, can provide only limited services to U.S. citizens. Inquiries on the present local situation, like currency regulations, should be made to the U.S. Interests Section of the Embassy of Belgium. The Belgian Embassy is located at Dhat al Emad Towers Complex, Tower Number Four, Fifth Floor, Tri-poli; [mailing address is the same as the physical address] Telephone: 00218/21/3350115 or 116, or 00218/21/3350936. Fax: 00218/21/3350118. Email: [email protected].

Travel Warning
November 20, 2003

This Travel Warning is being issued to reflect the lifting of UN sanctions. However, the security situation in Libya remains unstable, and the Department continues to have concerns about travel to Libya. This Warning supersedes the Travel Warning for Libya issued October 7, 2002.

The United States Department of State warns U.S. citizens against travel to or residence in Libya. There has been evidence of hostility to the United States in some segments of the population and some elements of the Libyan Government.

There is no U.S. Embassy in Libya. Therefore, the U.S. Government is unable to provide any assurances of the safety of travel to Libya by U.S. citizens. U.S. Government interests are represented by the Government of Belgium, which, as a protecting power, can provide only limited emergency services to U.S. citizens.

United Nations sanctions on Libya were lifted on September 12, 2003. U.S. sanctions, however, remain in place. All financial and commercial transactions with Libya by U.S. citizens are prohibited unles slicensed by the U.S. Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control. U.S. passports are not valid for travel to, in, or through Libya, unless a special validation is obtained beforehand from the Department of State.

Those Americans who decide to travel to Libya despite the Travel Warning should exercise a high level of caution. Updated information on travel and security in Libya may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States, or, from overseas, 1-317-472-2328. U.S. citizens who plan to travel to or remain in Libya despite this Travel Warning should consult the Department of State's latest Consular Information sheet for Libya, the current Worldwide Caution and Middle East and North Africa Public Announcements, which are available on the Department's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov.