Afrikaners

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Afrikaners

PRONUNCIATION: ahf-rih-KAHN-ers
ALTERNATE NAMES: Boers
LOCATION: Republic of South Africa
POPULATION: About 3,500,000
LANGUAGE: Afrikaans
RELIGION: Protestantism
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 5: Netherlanders

INTRODUCTION

During the 17th century, Dutch colonists (to become known as Boers) settled at the southern point of the African continent. Over the next 200 years, British, French, and German settlers joined indigenous Africans and imported Malays to produce a unique genetic blend. In time settlers moved inland, developing their own language, Afrikaans (first as a spoken dialect and later in written form), cultural identity, and worldview. Thus, emerged the Afrikaners.

Over the next 300 years, the Afrikaners battled indigenous African peoples, established independent republics in the interior, and fought the British in two wars known as the Anglo-Boer Wars (the second is now known as the South African War). All territories were finally united on 31 May 1910 in the Union of South Africa. At this time there was a clear division between the Afrikaners (who belonged to Afrikaner political parties, spoke Afrikaans, supported Afrikaner cultural and linguistic endeavors, and belonged to one of the Dutch Reformed Churches) and British-oriented, English-speaking South Africans. In 1948 the Afrikaner-based National Party came to power and, under a strong Calvinistic religious philosophy and racist social policy, started to implement the system of apartheid, which separated the peoples of South Africa along color lines. To their credit, there were many Afrikaner academics, church spokespersons, and business leaders among those who finally pressured the politicians to do away with apartheid and to introduce a new South Africa. As a result, political prisoners (including Nelson Mandela) were released and majority rule was established.

The Afrikaners are a numerical, ethnic, and political minority living in South Africa. Increasingly “Afrikaner” is being defined along linguistic-cultural lines, resulting in the inclusion of persons other than whites only. This discussion aims at representing traditional Afrikaner culture and thus assumes a historical setting prior to the transition to a new democracy represented by majority rule.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Afrikaners are concentrated in the Republic of South Africa, located at the southern tip of the African continent. Geographically this includes the region between 22° to 35°s, and 15° to 33°e. This means that a large part of the country experiences summer rains. The southern tip, however, falls in the winter rainfall zone. The country is divided into a narrow coastal zone below 450 m (1,500 ft) in altitude, while the largest part is on a plateau with an altitude of more than 900 m (3,000 ft). The country actually consists of four plateaus: the coastal zone, averaging 150 m (500 ft) above sea level; the Little Karoo, averaging 450 m (1,500 ft); the Great Karoo, averaging 760 m (2,500 ft); and the High Veld, which averages 1,200 m (4,000 ft) and rises to 1,800 m (6,000 ft) in the northeast. Temperatures are remarkably uniform due to the increased altitude as one moves north. Johannesburg, the largest city, has an annual mean temperature of 15.6°C (60°F), and this varies only slightly by altitude and latitude (e.g., coastal Durban is about 6°C or 10°F warmer but is also marked by coastal winds). Rainfall (which is so critical for farming and ranching) decreases as one moves from east to west, and while South Africa enjoys a sparse average rainfall of 44.5 cm (17.5 in), this represents a relatively well-watered eastern coastal zone and a western veld tapering into the Kalahari desert (75% of the country receives less than 63.5 cm or 25 in of rain per year). The highest rainfall is in the mountain region of the southern winter rainfall zone, which receives up to 508 cm (200 in) per year.

For more than four decades the white Afrikaners (as a numerical minority) governed the country. Originally concentrated in rural areas, they have since been involved in a major process of urbanization and have become distributed over most of the country. Population figures show Afrikaans as the home language of approximately 3.5 million whites, 400,000 Coloreds, and 15,000 persons of Asian extraction. The country's total population is 47.4 million (2006 estimates).

LANGUAGE

Afrikaans, the language spoken by Afrikaners, evolved as a dialect spoken by pioneers on the frontier during the 18th and 19th centuries. The root stock was 17th-century Dutch, but as various linguistic groups settled in the new colonies of those days, they contributed to the emerging language. These included French, German, and English speakers. The Dutch colonial authorities brought slaves from their holdings in southeast Asia, especially Malays, and in time these people contributed to the linguistic (also the cultural, religious, and genetic) mix that was emerging. Early contact had also occurred between settlers and the indigenous Khoekhoen (herders) and San or Bushmen (hunter-gatherers), from whom vocabulary (and cultural) elements were incorporated. On the frontiers more intimate contact developed with the Bantu-speaking peoples, and once again linguistic and cultural transfers took place. The new spoken language, Afrikaans, first appeared in print during the early 19th century and since then has produced material in a wealth of literary and scientific forms. Among the unique features of the language is the double negative: Hy wil nie speel nie (literally, “He does not want to play not”).

Personal names derive, in most cases, from a European tradition, usually given a Germanic (Afrikaans) form. It is the custom for married couples to name their first son after the husband's father and their first daughter after the wife's mother.

FOLKLORE

Early Afrikaner beliefs and traditions come from two major sources: those derived from their European ancestry, and those acquired locally due to intimate contact with indigenous peoples (Khoekhoen, San, and Bantu-speaking) and eastern immigrants (Malay and Indian). This includes childhood beliefs in mythical figures like tikoloshe, a diminutive urchin. As is true among many peoples, heroes and myths became intertwined as oral traditions were recounted or selected aspects recorded. As is also quite common, heroes frequently are from the political or religious realm.

Much of Afrikaner tradition recounts the exploits of pioneer leaders who with faith and fortitude “tamed” the interior of South Africa, wrestling the land from wild animals and warring native tribes. Th us, school children grew up with the names of Charl Celliers, Andries Potgieter, Piet Retief, and Gert Maritz. Much of the national folklore revolved around Oom (Uncle) Paul Kruger (the erstwhile president of the Afrikaner republic), for instance, recounting his experiences when he visited Queen Victoria. In the immediate past, sports heroes have emerged, particularly in the field of rugby where great physical prowess, fleetness of foot, and an accurate kicking boot have created modern heroes—often of mythical proportions.

RELIGION

The religion of the Afrikaner derives from Protestantism as practiced by the 17th-century Reformed Church of Holland. However, in 1685 when the French government repealed the Edict of Nantes (which guaranteed religious freedom in a heavily Roman Catholic-dominated France), Protestants fled, some going to Switzerland and others to Holland. These French Huguenots then emigrated from Holland to the Cape in 1688 to assure their religious freedom, and they added a special anti-Papist strain of Protestantism to the Afrikaner religion. They also brought a rich tradition of viniculture. After the British took over administration of the Cape in 1806, they brought English-speaking (especially Scottish Presbyterian) ministers to South Africa. Under the influence of the Swiss reformer John Calvin (and others) regarding church and state, the status of women, purity of the race, and related doctrines, a rather unique blend of Protestantism emerged in South Africa expressed by the three varieties of the Dutch Reformed Church.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Days and dates of special significance to Afrikaners are those that are associated with their religion and their national history. Many of these are no longer recognized in the new constitutional dispensation, while new holidays have been added to recognize the cultures of other ethnic groups.

Historically, religious holidays in South Africa have been tied to the Christian calendar. Christmas and Good Friday are still recognized as public holidays. Ascension Day (40 days after Easter) was once recognized as a public holiday, but was removed from the list by the Public Holidays Act of 1994. In the same act, the secular holiday of Family Day was created to replace Easter Monday and the Day of Goodwill, on December 26, replaced Boxing Day. December 16 was once celebrated as the Day of the Covenant, commemorating the day when Afrikaner pioneers beat back an attack of Zulu warriors in 1838. Since 1994, December 16 has been celebrated as the Day of Reconciliation. Other public holidays in contemporary South Africa include New Year's Day (January 1), Human Rights Day (March 21), Freedom Day (April 27), Worker's Day (1 May), Youth Day (June 16), National Women's Day (August 9), and Heritage Day (September 24).

Partly due to the Calvinistic overtones in Afrikaner society, Sundays were days of rest. Stores were closed, movie theaters were locked, organized sports were not permitted, and very little activity took place. People were expected to attend church services. None of this applies any longer.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Birthdays are almost universally celebrated, usually with a party accompanied by the giving of gifts. It is expected that all infants should be baptized. Afrikaner children grow up attending Sunday school, where Biblical texts have to be memorized and simple religious instruction occurs. When young people are about 16 years old, they study catechism, learning the tenets of the Reformation and the Biblical basis of Calvinistic Protestantism. This allows for confirmation as a church member and First Communion. In many families this age also permits individual dating. To this day, the twenty-first birthday is a major celebration in which a son or daughter might ceremonially receive a key.

Adults celebrate birthdays, frequently with a braai—the equivalent of the American barbecue, where meat is roasted on hot coals and other dishes are prepared. Death is marked at the family level by mourning and the wearing of black dresses by women, and black ties or a black arm band by men. However, these latter practices are becoming less common. The Dutch Reformed Churches celebrate the passing of the old year and the coming of the New Year with a midnight service on 31 December. The front pew is draped in black or purple to remember those who have passed away during that year, and their names are read aloud.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

When meeting people it is customary to greet each person, including children, with a handshake. Friends and relatives of both genders greet each other with a kiss on the lips (this practice does not generally apply to males greeting males), accompanied by a standard question, “How are you?” Taking leave involves the same actions and the standard “ Totsiens” (“Till we see [each other] again”). Afrikaners used to practice informal gender separation in that men would visit with men, would move aside after a meal to smoke and talk together, or would discuss national affairs with each other. Women were supposed to stay with women and talk about “womanly” affairs, such as homemaking, the servants, and the children. More recently, as women have become better educated and moved into the professions, and as men have lost some of the macho image, a more equitable relationship has developed.

LIVING CONDITIONS

South Africa, under Afrikaner administration, was an anomaly as had been true in many colonial and neocolonial situations. Whites lived in First World luxury, represented by housing, swimming pools, schools, hospitals, and clinics, while the same was only incidentally true for individual members of politically unrepresented groups. Afrikaners therefore were almost universally in a favored situation with civil service and other jobs, dependable salaries, automobiles, and electricity in their homes. Thus, they joined the consumer race to acquire the accoutrements of comfort and luxury, including televisions, videos, and computers. Because of a well-developed infrastructure, airplanes, trains and buses could deliver passengers to their destinations, while telephones served as a link for friends and people in business. There are a significant number of indigent Afrikaners.

FAMILY LIFE

The traditional Afrikaner family involved a young man courting his girlfriend and then formally requesting permission from her parents (especially her father) to become engaged. For three Sundays prior to the wedding, the couples' names were read in church and, if there were no objections (e.g., that one was already married or for some other legal or moral reason), the marriage was performed in church, followed by a reception. Historically, on the frontier and among farming families, Afrikaner families were large because children represented wealth and support. There also was a literal interpretation of the Biblical injunction to “go forth and be fruitful.” Some Afrikaner politicians advocated a policy of large families to counter the number of non-whites and to assure the position of whites in South Africa. Today, Afrikaner families average two or three children per family. Essentially the Afrikaner family is an example of the Germanic patriarchal extended family, but under conditions of urbanization and modernization they have moved toward the individual nuclear family unit occupying a single family home or apartment. Dogs and cats are favored as pets, while the former are also bred to protect home and property. The status of women has improved over the years and today is approaching equity as regards opportunity and salary.

CLOTHING

The everyday clothing of Afrikaners is no different from that of any modern Western urbanite. Reaching back to frontier days when women wore long dresses and bonnets, this dress has been retained for formal folk dancing called volkspele. It is a pleasing sight, though becoming less common, to see the women in their multicolored long dresses and colored bonnets swirling around, accompanied by their male partners, who are also uniformly dressed in shirts, vests, and pants.

FOOD

The everyday meal of the Afrikaner is characterized by an emphasis on meat, starch, and cooked vegetables, and the near absence of green or fresh salads. This is particularly true of the Sunday midday meal, where it is customary to have more than one kind of meat, rice, and potatoes, at least two cooked vegetables, and dessert. The breakfast staple is some kind of porridge. In the interior, Afrikaners learned from the native peoples to make a gruel called stywe pap or putu pap (“stiff porridge” or “putu orridge”). It is common to have this porridge for breakfast with milk and sugar and also to eat it with meat or boerewors (“boer sausage,” made of beef and pork) at a barbecue. Braaivleis (“roasted meat”) is traditional and very common, like the barbecue. Some years ago one would only find mutton, usually ribs and chops, at a braai, but today all kinds of meat are cooked, and a prawn braai is particularly enjoyed.

Traditional foods frequently have Eastern origins, emphasizing the mixed cultural traditions. One of these is sosaties (marinated meat much like shish kebab), frequently included in a braai. Another is bobotie, which contains ground meat with a curry spice flavor. Deriving from the same southeast Asian origins is a twisted doughnut that is fried in hot oil and then submerged in cold sweet syrup. This koeksister (“cruller”) is a popular delicacy. Venison has always formed part of Afrikaner dishes, as grazing animals could be hunted or culled from national parks. Fish has become very popular for those living close to the ocean, and dishes containing snoek (a type of fish native to the South African Cape region) are famous. Two food items that trace back to pioneer days are very common among Afrikaners: beskuit and biltong. The first is translated as “rusks” in English and comes in different varieties but essentially is a biscuit that has been oven-dried. It is usually dunked and enjoyed with coffee. Biltong consists of strips of dried meat, from beef or venison (and also from ostrich), which are treated with salt, pepper, and spices prior to drying. Dried fruits, either in individual pieces or in the form of a ground paste, are delicacies.

EDUCATION

Children go to school at age 6 and are obliged to stay in school through age 16. Most of the Afrikaans medium schools require a school uniform: girls wear the same color dress or skirt and blouse, while boys wear the same color shirt and pants. During most of the year boys wear shorts with long stockings. Each school has its own colors, and girls and boys wear blazers that display the crest of the school. Among whites (thus including Afrikaners), school attendance and literacy are nearly universal. It is common for Afrikaans students who have completed high school by successfully passing the national matriculation examination to go to one of the four primarily Afrikaans medium universities, or to a “technicon,” which is more technically oriented. Since the Constitution of the Union of South Africa (1910) recognized Afrikaans and English as official languages, students have been bilingual, and many have attended one of the four English medium universities. In contemporary democratic South Africa there are now 11 official languages, recognizing each of the major ethnic groups. English, however, has established itself as the common language of commerce and of politics.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

A great deal of the Afrikaners' heritage is derived from and reinforced by European cultural traditions. Thus, the great number and diversity of the performing arts, musical compositions, literary creations, and expressions in ballet and dance all follow the Western European model. Obviously, South African themes have been included in many of these, as is true of the visual arts.

WORK

Most Afrikaners are formally employed. Coming from a rural tradition, they moved haltingly into urban forms of employment, first into civil service and education, and then into mining, industry, and business. Today they are firmly established in the urban industrial world. Among whites in the rural areas, Afrikaners predominate. Afrikaners are characterized by a Calvinistic work ethic that requires hard, industrious work. Children are raised with statements like, “Idleness is Satan's pillow,” implying that idleness is the parent of vice.

SPORTS

Afrikaners are active sports participants. TV was not permitted in South Africa until the 1960s, then for a number of years it was only shown at night. The emphasis was on playing sports. Afrikaner children play a variety of games in an informal manner. Organized sports start early as boys go out for rugby, cricket, or “athletics” (which means track-and-field). Girls play netball (similar to basketball), field hockey, and participate in athletics. Sports like golf, swimming, soccer and tennis also feature. It is common to see a group of boys on an open field with a tennis or rubber ball playing single wicket cricket, or tossing a ball in a variation of touch football. Girls are more likely to be at home and to participate only in school or club sports. Intramural and league competitions are well developed in many sports, allowing students to battle for the honor of their class or their school. A dwindling number of people, particularly the older generation, engage in a competition called jukskei, which traces back to pioneer days. In the game, carved pieces of wood, resembling the yoke pin used on draft animals, are tossed in an attempt to knock over a stake. The game is similar to the American game of horseshoes.

Spectators flock to venues where high school, college, club, provincial, or national teams compete in all of these sports. Traditionally Afrikaners excelled more in rugby and athletics but increasingly they have made their mark in other sports, producing world and Olympic champions.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Popular culture used to be alien and was frowned on by the elders. Thus, young people entertained themselves in folk dances, church-sponsored youth activities, and the bioscope (movies). It is now common for a group of young people to rent videos, gather at a bar or a dance, or go to a disco. Increasingly too, it has become acceptable to mix socially, and even intimately, with English-speaking persons and even members of other communities. There is a variety of theaters, lectures, and other expressions of the performing arts that are widely attended.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

In the days of frontier living, and later on farms and ranches, there existed a clear sexual division of labor. Certain things were in the man's realm, while the woman dominated domestic activities. These divisions are still sometimes carried over to the present. Women are known for quilting, crocheting, and knitting; and a beautiful doily with a circle of shells or beads covers every jug of milk. In rural areas it is common for women to make soap, bottled jellies, jams, and preserves, and do all the baking of breads, beskuit, and cakes. Men used to be adept at woodworking, delicate leatherworking, and the making of chairs with seats of interwoven strips of leather.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Modern Afrikaners bear a heavy, and in some cases unfair, cultural burden. That burden was created by their ancestors who accepted and reinterpreted a Calvinist Protestantism, developed a racist-based philosophy that led to the policy of apartheid, and in the process became the pariahs of the world. Not all Afrikaners agreed with the policy of their government, not all Afrikaners were racists, and not all Afrikaners accepted the social or political conditions. Yet, being Afrikaners, they are uniformly labeled. Afrikaners had been in a very favorable situation, and for some this created concern and guilt. In contemporary South Africa, also referred to as the “Rainbow Nation,” a great number of legal and other actions are being implemented to correct earlier wrongs in the fields of civil rights, economic conditions, housing, etc. Today, Afrikaners are effectively facing the challenge to create a niche for themselves and to become a vital part of South African society.

South Africa's transition to democracy in 1994 brought equal rights and new opportunities to the disadvantaged sectors of the population. Unfortunately, it also sparked a dramatic increase in the rate of crime and violence—an inevitable by-product of poverty and high unemployment in the context of a new political system where social expectations are unrealistically high. Burglaries, muggings, car-jackings, rapes, and murders have all increased since the late 1990s. Afrikaners are as much the victims of this crime rate as any other sector of the population. High levels of crime have led to demands for tough action by the government as well as a return to capital punishment, which is banned in South Africa. One result has been a growing rate of emigration. Another has been the growth of private security-related services and the development of gated communities.

HIV/AIDS is a major problem in South Africa, with the adult prevalence rate at 21.5% (2003 est). The number of people living with HIV/AIDS stood at about 5.3 million in 2003, with 370 000 related deaths that year. The Afrikaners however, comprise one of the communities least affected by the pandemic.

GENDER ISSUES

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) guarantees many individual rights. Chapter 2[9(3)] specifically indicates that “The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender... etc.” In 2003, the Department of Education launched the Girls Education Movement (GEM) as one of the government's key gender focus programs, implemented in partnership with the United Nations Children's Fund. This program aims to ensure that girls will have access education and that their retention and achievement rates will increase. It is founded on three pillars, namely career mentorship, skills development, and advocacy.

As opposed to many communities in South Africa, particularly in the rural, patriarchal communities, Afrikaners in the country are much further along the road of gender parity. Much like other industrialized nations, Afrikaner women in South Africa are increasingly career-oriented and fill prominent positions in virtually every sector of society.