Sparta

Type of Government

The Greek city-state of Sparta was governed by a system that comprised elements of monarchy, oligarchy (government by the few), and democracy. The government was headed by a dual monarchy with two kings who performed military, judicial, and religious functions. Legislative and judicial functions were carried out by the elective Gerousia (Council of Elders) and a democratic Assembly. Five ephors (overseers) supervised the kings and the legislative bodies.

Background

Sparta was the capital of the state of Laconia in the southeastern Peloponnese region of ancient Greece. Historians believe the Spartan city-state was established during the ninth century BC, when several villages near the Eurotas River united.

Sparta distinguished itself from other Greek city-states in that it did not rely on overseas colonies to satisfy the needs of its growing population. Rather, Sparta sought to conquer its neighbors through military might. By the end of the eighth century BC, the Spartans had conquered Messenia to the west and controlled the entire Laconian plain, making it one of the largest and richest empires in the Greek world. In the following century the Messenians revolted against Spartan rule but were again defeated after decades of fighting.

To ensure control over the conquered territories, inhabitants of the Laconian plain were forced into servitude as helots, essentially hereditary slaves of the Spartan state. Residents in surrounding areas were known as perioikoi—they were considered free but were required to serve in the Spartan army and had no claim to citizenship. Thus, Spartan citizens were far outnumbered by the underclasses subject to their control.

This tenuous social structure gave rise to a highly regimented warrior culture that emphasized agoge (rigorous military training). Indeed, the Spartans became single-minded in their focus on military rule and developed the most powerful army in Greece. Sparta used its military strength to dominate the Greek world, culminating in a crushing defeat of Athens in the Peloponnesian Wars (460–404 BC). The period from 404 to 371 BC was known as the Spartan hegemony (dominance over other nations).

Government Structure

The Spartan government was headed by a dual monarchy. Two kings served as leaders of the military, presided over the Gerousia, and retained veto power over the Spartan Assembly. In addition, they performed important religious functions, serving as chief priests, conducting public sacrifices, and interpreting the oracles the Spartans believed were so crucial to their military success.

The dual kingship had two advantages. First, it provided a primitive form of checks and balances: The two kings had equal authority and often competed with one another, thus limiting the power of either monarch. Second, it ensured that Sparta would never be without a leader if one was killed in battle—in fact, after a famous dispute between the kings Demaratus (sixth to fifth centuries BC) and Cleomenes I (d. 490 BC) in 508 BC, the Spartans passed a law requiring one king to remain at home when the other was away in the field.

The Gerousia was composed of twenty-eight men over the age of sixty—the age at which obligatory military service ended—who served for life. Candidates for the Gerousia were elected by acclamation (a vote of cheers and applause rather than ballots). The body exercised important legislative and judicial functions, approving all legislative initiatives before their presentation to the Assembly and serving as a criminal court for the most serious offenses.

Each year, the Spartans elected five ephors, also by acclamation, to supervise the kings and the Spartan legislative bodies, to deal with foreign embassies, and to handle certain civil judicial matters. The ephors served only a single one-year term, and all their actions were reviewed by their successor, thus providing a check against corruption. Their chief duty was to ensure the kings followed the rule of law, though they also controlled the education and police functions of the Spartan city-state.

The Assembly, the most democratic component of the Spartan government, comprised all male citizens over the age of thirty. (Note, however, that the Spartan citizenry excluded roughly 95 percent of the people under Sparta’s control.) The Assembly met monthly to vote on bills passed forward by the Gerousia. There was no discussion or debate in the Assembly—members simply listened to each proposal and voted yes or no.

Political Parties and Factions

The two kings of Sparta were drawn from the two most prominent families: the Agiads and the Eurypontids. The kings served for life, with succession passing to the eldest male heir in each line. Both families claimed to be descended from Zeus through his son Heracles.

Major Events

Two wars were instrumental in setting Sparta on its path of conquest. During the First Messenian War (c. 735–c. 715 BC) Sparta invaded its neighbor to the west, Messenia, to gain control of its fertile lowlands. Sparta conquered the Messenians, making most of them helots. The Messenians revolted against Spartan rule during the next century in the Second Messenian War (c. 660 BC); even though the revolt was unsuccessful, it prompted a massive reorganization of Spartan society into the totalitarian regime for which it became known.

The determination of the Spartan army became evident during the battle of Thermopylae (480 BC). In this legendary campaign, a small band of Greek forces under the leadership of the Spartan king Leonidas (d. 480 BC) attempted to hold back the invading Persian army, fighting to the last man. Even though the Greeks ultimately lost the battle, the Persians suffered tremendous losses. The Spartans’ refusal to surrender has been celebrated in myth and literature as an example of heroic resistance in the face of insurmountable odds.

The Peloponnesian Wars pitted the two leading city-states in Greece, Athens and Sparta, against one another for dominance of the Greek world. The main phase, known as the Second Peloponnesian War, lasted from 431 to 404 BC. Initially, the war was a stalemate between the Athenians’ superior naval power and the Spartans’ powerful army. However, the war turned in Sparta’s favor as the Athenians were unable to attack Sparta from the sea and spent themselves on other campaigns. In 404 BC Athens surrendered, making Sparta the superpower of the Greek city-states and initiating the period known as the Spartan hegemony.

Aftermath

Following its victory over Athens, Sparta set out to establish its own empire. The king during this period, the aggressive Agesilaus II (c. 444–360 BC), embroiled Sparta in conflicts with Persia and in the Corinthian War (394–387 BC) against Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos. The Spartans were finally defeated by Thebes, whose forces were led by the general Epaminondas (c. 410–362 BC) and allied with Athens, at the battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, bringing Sparta’s hegemony to an end.

Cartledge, Paul. Sparta and Lakonia: A Regional History, 1300–362 BC. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2002.

Cartledge, Paul. The Spartans: The World of the Warrior-Heroes of Ancient Greece. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 2003.

Forrest, W. G. The History of Sparta, 950–192 BC. 2nd ed. London: Duckworth, 1980.