Major, John (b. 1943). Prime minister. Major entered the House of Commons in 1979 after a career in banking and during the next decade had a meteoric rise to power. His parliamentary career began in the whips' office (1983–5) which clearly left its mark on him, and then in the Department of Health and Social Services (1985–7). He became chief secretary to the Treasury in 1987 but two years later, still a political unknown, was chosen by Mrs Thatcher to replace first Sir Geoffrey Howe as foreign secretary, then Nigel Lawson as chancellor of the Exchequer. Unable to make a mark at the Foreign Office, he made his reputation as chancellor by persuading a reluctant Mrs Thatcher to enter the exchange rate mechanism at a rate of his choosing, which events proved to be too high. In 1990, on Mrs Thatcher's resignation, Major defeated Douglas Hurd and Michael Heseltine for the leadership, attracting support as Thatcher's political heir. As prime minister he stuck to the ERM policy until the pound was forced out of the system in September 1992 by market forces. This disaster cost him much credibility since recovery, when it came, was based on a floating pound and reduced interest rates, the opposite of his campaign platform in 1992, when he had won the general election against the odds.

Relations with Europe were at the heart of Major's difficulties as prime minister. The Tory Party was split on the issue, yet in 1992 he agreed to sign the treaty on European unity at Maastricht, which laid down a timetable for a single currency and established majority voting in almost every area of policy. It even foresaw a European army and police force and made all British subjects citizens of a new state, the European Union. The concessions Major gained in the negotiations appeared cosmetic and it was not easy to understand how he could claim to have won ‘game, set and match’. Lady Thatcher opposed ratification, and the treaty was pushed through the House of Commons only by brutal government whipping.

Major's popularity, based in part on the contrast he offered to his predecessor, declined sharply. The run on the pound had been extremely expensive and produced record unemployment, record deficits, and record tax increases. A ‘back-to-basics’ initiative, intended to improve the moral climate of the nation, foundered amid Tory scandal and sleaze. The government's policy towards the National Health Service alienated many voters. In 1994 Major attempted to recapture the initiative by tackling the Irish problem, although it involved, contrary to previous assurances, negotiating with the Irish Republican Army. But the declaration that the British government had no ‘selfish, strategic or economic interest’ in Northern Ireland confirmed Ulster's fears of further betrayal, and although a cease-fire brought welcome relief, it did not last. In spite of a considerable economic recovery, Tory divisions over Europe continued to fester, although in 1995 Major beat off a challenge to his leadership from John Redwood, representing the anti-Europe sceptics. Further difficulties were caused by the protracted scare over British beef, which killed its export market and imposed severe financial strains on both government and industry. Major showed little enthusiasm to face the electorate and postponed a general election until the last possible moment. In May 1997 his party suffered a severe defeat and he resigned immediately. Though widely regarded as honest and well-intentioned, and considerably more popular than his party, Major's years as leader were dogged by misfortune and he rarely seemed in advance of events. He retired from his seat at Huntingdon at the general election of 2001.

Andrew Sanders