Woodpeckers, wrynecks, and piculets

(Picidae)

Class Aves

Order Piciformes

Family Picidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium, primarily arboreal; often with patterns of brown, green, or black-and-white; woodpeckers (Picinae) and piculets (Picumninae) often sexually dichromic, males with red or yellow on the head and females lacking it or with less color; wrynecks (Jynginae) sexes similar; woodpeckers have stiff rectrices used for support while climbing on tree surfaces; wrynecks and piculets do not; most have four toes, arranged two forward and two back (zygodactyl)

Size
Wrynecks: 6.3–7.5 in (16–19 cm); 0.78–2.1 oz (22–59 g); piculets: 3–6.3 in (7.5–16 cm);0.24–1.2 oz (6.8–33 g); woodpeckers: 4.7–24 in (12–60 cm); 0.6–21+ oz (17–600+ g)

Number of genera, species
26 genera, 213 species; wrynecks, 1 genus, 2 species; piculets, 2 genera, 29 species; woodpeckers, 23 genera, 182 species

Habitat
Forests, woodlands, parks, and savannas; a few species found in grasslands and deserts

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 3 species; Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 7 species; Near Threatened: 12 species

Distribution
Worldwide except absent from Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, Madagascar, Ireland, many oceanic islands, and treeless polar regions; wrynecks limited to Eurasia and Africa; piculets to Asia, Central and South America, and Hispaniola

Evolution and systematics

The picids are an ancient, very distinctive, and thus easily recognized group. Early picids were present at least by the Eocene in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres, but the fossil record is limited and sheds little light on picid relationships. Within the Piciformes they seem to be most closely related to the barbets (Capitonidae), toucans (Ramphastidae), and honeyguides (Indicatoridae). Wrynecks are considered the most primitive picids and they lack many adaptations of the family for tree-climbing and excavation. Woodpeckers may have originated in the New World and there are incredible parallels between Neotropical and African woodpecker groups.

Physical characteristics

Wrynecks are cryptically colored above in brown, gray, and black, and lighter below. They have a slender, pointed bill, rounded wings, and a relatively long tail with rounded tail feathers that lack the stiffness found in woodpecker rectrices. They have short legs and four toes in a zygodactyl (two toes forward, two back) arrangement. Sexes are alike.

Piculets are like miniature woodpeckers, but tail feathers, though pointed, are not stiff and are not used for support. Piculet plumage tends to be soft, and brown and black dominate their color patterns. As with woodpeckers, the sexes are often distinguished by the presence of red on the head of the male. Also like woodpeckers, mechanical tapping on wood is sometimes used for communication.

Woodpeckers have a relatively large head, a straight, sharply pointed to chisel-tipped bill, and a long cylindrical tongue that is often barbed or brushlike at the tip for extracting insect prey from tunnels and crevices. Short legs and three or four toes in a zygodactyl arrangement, and strongly curved claws facilitate climbing. Stiff rectrices are used as a prop for climbing on vertical surfaces and probably also as a "spring" to maximize efficiency of pecking motions. The major tail feathers are mostly black, the melanin adding strength that is needed to counter wear resulting from contact with

tree surfaces. Many species are crested, such as the pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus).

Distribution

Woodpeckers are found in forested regions throughout the world except for Madagascar, the Australian region, and some oceanic islands. Some woodpeckers (e.g., flickers, Colaptes) extend beyond the limits of forest, making nest and roost cavities in utility poles, fence posts, or dirt banks. Wrynecks are confined to the Old World, and piculets to the tropics.

Habitat

Picidae habitats include virtually any environment with woody vegetation, and some without. A major component of woodpecker habitats that has been given little attention but is worthy of consideration is water. High relative humidity, frequent precipitation, and the local presence of standing or running water contribute to abundance and diversity of picid species within regions. The link between water and picids is the requisite moist wood for fungal decay, which facilitates cavity excavation and provides suitable habitats for the wood-boring arthropods that so many picids depend on. Larger woodpeckers, of course, need larger trees in which to excavate their nest and roost cavities. They also often feed on larger prey and need more extensive habitat in order to find adequate food resources. Some smaller woodpeckers that have become specialized for unique habitat conditions also have extensive

habitat needs. The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) can require 200–1,000 or more acres (80–400 ha) of pine forest per pair depending on habitat quality.

Behavior

Flight of picids is often undulating, but the largest woodpeckers tend toward less undulation and more level flight. Picid wings tend to be relatively short and rounded, providing better control for maneuvering in forest habitats. Some species, such as the yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) and northern flicker (Colaptes auratus) in North America are migrant (at least in northern populations). The yellow-bellied sapsucker shows a distinct pattern of differential migration by the sexes, females going farther south. Others such as the three-toed woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) are somewhat irruptive, departing areas when food supplies are low and moving to areas of food concentration such as epidemic beetle outbreaks. Most occupy similar habitats year round, but some can make drastic seasonal shifts. The red-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), for example, is generally a bird of very open habitats where it feeds on beetles, grasshoppers, other arthropods, and some fruit during summer, but in winter it often moves to bottomland forest and focuses its foraging on acorns and other mast (nuts found on the forest floor).

Vocalizations are often simple, with single notes often used as contact calls between mates and "whinny" or "rattle" calls found with some variation across the family. In social species such as the California woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) and red-cockaded woodpecker, the vocal repertoire can be more complex. Communication by production of mechanical sounds through tapping on resonant wood is common in picids and the loud, rolling tattoo of such large species as the black woodpecker (Dryocopus martius) of Eurasia and the pileated woodpecker of North America are truly magnificent.

Feeding ecology and diet

The diet of picids is heavily biased toward forest insects and other arthropods, but also includes varying, and sometimes substantial, proportions of fruit, nuts, and tree sap. Many of the physical adaptations of picids are specializations for obtaining food from tree surfaces and subsurfaces. A chisel-like bill is used for excavating to retrieve wood-boring beetle larvae, ants, termites, and other invertebrates from within wood or other substrates. It is also used to reach mast and produce sap wells from which the birds obtain liquid nourishment. The exceptionally long vermiform tongue with a barbed tip is used like a rake to retrieve prey from tunnels and crevices, its efficiency enhanced by a coating of sticky saliva produced by the large salivary glands that characterize the group. The barbs at the tip of a sapsucker's tongue are short and abundant, making the tongue more "brushlike," aiding in obtaining liquid nourishment provided by sap.

Reproductive biology

All members of the Picidae are cavity nesters. Most excavate their own nest and roost cavities, a process that takes about two weeks and is shared by monogamous pair members. The wrynecks do not excavate cavities, but may enlarge one. They also differ from typical woodpeckers by sometimes adding grass or moss as a nest lining. In the red-cockaded woodpecker, cavity excavation, which is characteristically in a living pine, can take several years. A woodpecker nest cavity is usually the roost of the male. No nest material is brought in, though woodpeckers generally leave a layer of fresh chips on the bottom of the cavity and may add more chips, excavated from cavity walls during laying, incubation, and brooding of small nestlings. All picids lay shiny white eggs. At first these are somewhat translucent and may even appear pinkish; with development they become opaque. Clutch size varies within and among species, but usually averages three to five eggs. Incubation begins with laying of the last egg and is shared by both parents. Incubation periods are very short, usually 10–12 days. Young are very altricial and remain naked and with closed eyes for four to seven days. Nestlings fledge at three to six weeks and may be dependent on parents for weeks to months. Nesting success is generally high, although brood reduction through starvation of the last-hatched chick is common.

Conservation status

Seventeen woodpecker and five piculet species or sub-species were included on the 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The ivory-billed (Campephilus principalis), imperial (Campephilus imperialis), and the Okinawa woodpecker (Sapheopipo noguchii) are Critically Endangered by loss of old-growth forest. The red-cockaded, Arabian (Dendrocopos dorae), helmeted (Dryocopus galeatus), and Sulu (Picoides ramsayi) woodpeckers are all classified as Vulnerable as a result of habitat losses. The red-cockaded is classified as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Ten other woodpecker species are listed by IUCN in their Lower Risk category. The tawny (Picumnus fulvescens), ochraceous (Picumnus limae), and speckle-chested (Picumnus steindachneri) piculets are all listed as Vulnerable, and the rusty-necked (Picumnus fuscus) and mottled (Picumnus nebulosus) piculets are included as Lower Risk.

The greatest threat to picids is habitat destruction and modification. Clearing of forests for non-forest uses reduces and fragments populations and allows invasion of forest-edge species that compete with woodpeckers for cavities or that prey on woodpeckers. Clearcutting followed by harvesting of trees before they reach natural maturity reduces habitat quality, availability of nest sites, and abundance, diversity, and stability of food supplies. All endangered and threatened woodpecker species are suffering impacts of habitat losses. Introduction of exotic secondary cavity-nesting species, such as the European starling (Sturnus vulgaris), has increased competition for woodpecker cavities and contributed to population declines and possibly shifts in woodpecker nesting phenology that further upset woodpecker roles within ecosystems. For example, starling competition with earlynesting red-bellied woodpeckers (Melanerpes carolinus) seems to have resulted in later renesting of that species, placing it in greater competition with the later nesting red-headed woodpeckers.

Significance to humans

The brilliant red feathers on the head of many male woodpeckers have been sought by indigenous peoples in many areas of the world. In North America, the scalps and bills of ivory-billed woodpeckers were sought and traded far outside the range of the species to be used to adorn war pipes and ceremonial dress. Red-headed woodpecker feathers were similarly used by the Ojibway Indians of Canada. In California, scalps of woodpeckers became essentially the basis of a monetary system among indigenous peoples. Woodpecker tongues and other body parts have been used in folk medicine and woodpeckers have been eaten in many cultures. In Italy, however, the tapping of woodpeckers is considered unlucky, a belief perhaps handed down from the Romans. At the end of the nineteenth century, skins of rare species such as the ivory-billed and imperial woodpeckers had a high market value and were the subject of intense collecting pressure. In the late twentieth century the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker of the southeastern United States became a symbol of conflict between the forest industry and environmental action groups. Several species of woodpeckers have been eaten by local cultures, including flickers, pileated woodpeckers, and ivory-billed woodpeckers in North America. The latter two were both known to early settlers in North America as "Indian hens," perhaps a reference to their edibility. One early writer suggests that ivory-billed woodpecker tasted as good as "pintail duck."

Woodpeckers are very important components of forest ecosystems because of their role in providing nest and roost sites for many secondary cavity-nesting species, their control of forest insect pests, and to some extent dispersal of seeds. Woodpeckers are also blamed for considerable damage to buildings, some damage to crops (including sugar cane, cacao, corn, oranges, and other fruit), to commercially valuable trees, and sometimes to eggs of poultry. Often, however, the perceived damage is a perception only and the "services" provided by the birds far outweigh any real damage. Woodpeckers have a lot of popular appeal and have contributed to human culture in such diverse ways as through the cartoon "Woody Woodpecker" (patterned after the pileated woodpecker), door-knockers shaped like woodpeckers, and toothpick dispensers that include a miniature woodpecker that picks up a toothpick for the user. In Brazil, muzzle-loading shotguns are called "woodpeckers."

Species accounts

List of Species

Northern wryneck

Jynx torquilla

subfamily

Jynginae

taxonomy

Jynx torquilla Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: European wryneck, Eurasian wryneck; French: Torcol fourmilier; German: Wendehals; Spanish: Torcecuello de África Tropical.

physical characteristics

6.3–6.7 in (16–17 cm); 0.8–1.9 oz (22–54 g), weight extremes associated with migratory preparation and losses resulting from migration; a small, aberrant woodpecker with an overall gray appearance and lacking stiff tail feathers of typical woodpeckers; upperparts are gray mottled with brown and buff in a pattern much like some nightjars (Caprimulgiformes); diamond-shaped dark patch on back extends to the nape; breast is lighter gray; sexes alike and juveniles similar to adults.

distribution

Breeds from northern Eurasia south through temperate Eurasia to Japan; disjunct breeding population in western Asia and northwestern Africa; winters central Eurasia south to drier areas of central and West Africa, India, Southeast Asia, southern China, southern Japan. J. t. torquilla, most of Eurasia; J. t. tschusii, Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, eastern Adriatic coast; J. t. mauretanica, northwestern Africa; J. t. himalayana, Kashmir.

habitat

Open forests, clearings, edge habitats with sparse ground cover.

behavior

Takes its name from head movements produced when cornered in the nest; described as mimicry of a snake. Migrant,

travels mainly at night. Moves about home range alone, as pairs during breeding season, or as post-breeding family groups. Rarely climbs a vertical surface.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages for arthropods, especially ants, their larvae and pupae, mainly on ground; captures prey with its sticky tongue.

reproductive biology

Nests in old woodpecker holes, nest boxes, and other natural and humanmade cavities; may slightly enlarge a well-rotted cavity. Typically nest is 3–49 ft (1–15 m) up. Nesting is May–June. Unlike woodpeckers, nest bottom is sometimes lined with sparse grass or moss. Typical clutch size is 7–12 eggs, but fewer eggs at some nests and as many as 18–23 at others where more than one female is laying. Incubation period is about 11 days and young usually fledge in 20–22 days. Both parents care for young for 10–14 days post-fledging. Second nest attempt may quickly follow first.

conservation status

Not threatened, but declines in Europe associated with loss of unimproved pasture and orchard habitats and increases in conifer forests.

significance to humans

In Greek mythology, the king of the Greek gods, Zeus, was bewitched by Inyx, daughter of Echo and Peitha, and in revenge, Hera, Zeus's wife, turned Inyx into a wryneck. As a result, the wryneck is considered a "love charm." No doubt this tale is linked to the sinuous, somewhat sensual movements of the disturbed wryneck in its nest.

Olivaceous piculet

Picumnus olivaceus

subfamily

Picumninae

taxonomy

Picumnus olivaceus Lafresnaye, 1845.

other common names

French: Picumne olivâtre; German: Olivrücken-Zwergspecht; Spanish: Carpinterito Olicáceo, Telegrafista.

physical characteristics

3.5–3.7 in (9–10 cm), 0.39–0.53 oz (11–15 g); tiny, short, pointed bill; olive above, black cap with white spots, dusky cheeks with white streaks; pale olive to dusky below with light flank streaking. Male with yellow-orange streaked crown; female with no yellow-orange.

distribution

Atlantic slope of Central America from northeast Guatemala south into northern South America to Colombia, northwest Venezuela, western Ecuador to northwest Peru.

habitat

Humid tropical evergreen forest and forest edge, including plantations; often in cutover areas; seems absent from mature forest; lowlands to about 7,000 feet (2,100 m).

behavior

Constantly moving, almost nuthatch-like, moving over small branches both high and low within the forest, but favoring thickets and vines and avoiding large trunks and limbs. The Spanish common name telegrafista comes from the resemblance of its feeding percussion blows to the sound of Morse code being tapped out by telegraph.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds largely on ants, especially those that tunnel in dead twigs; also takes other insects and their eggs and larvae.

reproductive biology

Nest cavity excavated in soft wood, in a low stub, by both members of a pair. Pair roosts together in the cavity prior to nesting. Clutch of 1–3 white eggs incubated for about 14 days by both parents; young fed by both parents; fledge at about age 24–26 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Rufous piculet

Sasia abnormis

subfamily

Picumninae

taxonomy

Picumnus abnormis Temminck, 1825.

other common names

French: Picumne roux; German: Malaienmausspecht; Spanish: Carpinterito Rufo.

physical characteristics

3.5 in (9 cm), 0.25–0.42 oz (7.2–12 g); tiny, green above, rust below; male with yellow forehead; female with rufous forehead. Very short tail.

distribution

Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Billiton, Borneo, Nias.

habitat

Secondary forest with much decaying wood; bamboo stands; low dense vegetation.

behavior

Somewhat social, seen in groups of 4–5; fast moving through understory.

feeding ecology and diet

Gleans insects from surface and excavates small holes to retrieve insects. Diet includes beetles, ants, other small insects, their eggs, and larvae, and small spiders.

reproductive biology

Little known; nests found in bamboo; nestlings found May–June; brood size 2.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Northern flicker

Colaptes auratus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Colaptes auratus Linnaeus, 1758, based on the drawing of the "golden-winged wood-pecker" by Mark Catesby. Has at times

been separated into red-shafted (C. cafer) and yellow-shafted species (C. auratus), but considerable hybridization occurs in the North American Great Plains. Four major racial groups including nine races are recognized. The gilded flicker (C. chrysoides) is sometimes considered as another race of the northern flicker.

other common names

English: Common flicker, yellow-shafted flicker, red-shafted flicker, Guatemalan flicker, Cuban flicker; French: Pic flamboyant; German: Goldspecht; Spanish: Carpintero Escapulario.

physical characteristics

11.8–13.8 in (30–35 cm); 3.1–5.8 oz (88–164 g). Primarily a ground-feeding woodpecker that is camouflaged with earth-toned colors and black spotting on back and wings, a disruptive black "V" on its breast, and heavy black spotting on belly and flanks; western forms have red-vaned flight feathers, eastern and southern forms yellow-vaned flight feathers, hybrids have orange; male red-shafted flickers have a red "moustache" stripe, yellow-shafted have a black moustache, hybrids intermediate.

distribution

Throughout North America from west central Alaska to the northern regions of the Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, to southern Labrador and Newfoundland, south throughout North America and adjacent islands to northern Baja California, southern Mexico, north central Nicaragua, Cuba, Isle of Pines, Cayman Islands. Distribution of the four major racial groups: C. a. auratus, northern and eastern North America; C. a. cafer, western North America and Mexico; C. a. mexicanoides, highlands from Chiapas south to Nicaragua; C. a. chrysocaulosus, Cuba and Cayman Islands.

habitat

Very open forest to savanna with sparse understory, urban and suburban parks and landscapes, less commonly in treeless grasslands.

behavior

Northern populations migratory, many others resident. The Cuban form seems more arboreal than continental forms. Solitary much of the time, but migrants found in small flocks. May roost in or on buildings.

feeding ecology and diet

Generally feeds on the ground on ants and other arthropods; also feeds on arthropods in well-rotted wood; fruits, and seeds in season.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; often nests in near treeless areas, excavating cavities in utility poles, occasionally dirt banks; sometimes uses nest boxes. Not a strong excavator and often uses available cavities. Nesting occurs February–August (earlier in warmer latitudes, later in colder areas). Clutch size 3–12 eggs, 4–9 common; incubation 11–12 days by both parents; young fledge at 25–28 days. Young are fed by regurgitation. Two broods possible. Often suffers from competition for cavities with the introduced European starling (Sturnus vulgaris).

conservation status

Not threatened. Guadeloupe flicker (Colaptes auratus rufipileus) of Guadeloupe Island off Baja California is extinct.

significance to humans

Often mentioned in folklore, feathers were used decoratively by Native Americans; sometimes eaten and considered a game bird; occasionally causes problems by excavating into the siding of homes and other buildings.

Rufous woodpecker

Celeus brachyurus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus brachyurus Vieillot, 1818. Nine subspecies.

other common names

French: Pic brun; German: Rostspecht; Spanish: Carpintero Rufo.

physical characteristics

8.3–9.8 in (21–25 cm), 1.9–4.0 oz (55–114 g); a reddish brown woodpecker with black barring on rufous back, wings, tail, and flanks; reddish eye; male with a red cheek, female without; juveniles like adults but sometimes more, sometimes less barring.

distribution

Southeast Asia from southwest India and Sri Lanka to Nepal, southern China, Hainan, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java; several disjunct and island populations resulting in considerable variation recognized as subspecies.

habitat

Lowland forest to 5,580 ft (1,700 m) in some areas; occupies a diversity of forest types, including bamboo, mangroves, and

scrub, as well as both primary and secondary evergreen and deciduous forest.

behavior

A shy bird usually found away from people; found in pairs; seems to prefer open forest, but seeks shaded areas; very vocal.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages throughout the forest, sometimes in mixed species flocks. Feeds extensively on tree-dwelling ants and other insects; also takes fruits, nectar, and sap.

reproductive biology

Male and female share excavation of nest, often in a nest of tree ants; clutch usually of 2–3 shiny white eggs incubated by both sexes for 12–14 days; young fed by regurgitation.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-headed woodpecker

Melanerpes erythrocephalus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus erythrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758, based on Mark Catesby's drawing of the "Red-headed Wood-Pecker."

other common names

French: Pic à tête rouge; German: Rotkopfspecht; Spanish: Carpintero de Cabeza Roja.

physical characteristics

9–10 in (24–26 cm); 2–3.4 oz (56–97 g). Adults have a completely red head, black back and tail, white breast, black wings with white secondaries that appear as a white shield when the wings are folded over the back. Sexes are alike. Juveniles have a gray-black head and some black markings on white secondaries.

distribution

Breeds east of Rocky Mountains in North America from southern regions of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, south to the Gulf of Mexico and south central Florida; winters mostly in southern two-thirds of its breeding range, but farther north during mild winters.

habitat

Open woodland, especially with oaks and beech; also roadsides and open areas with scattered trees or utility poles. Often seasonally moves from open areas in summer to bottomland forest in fall and winter.

behavior

Solitary or as pairs in summer, often found in loose social groups in winter. Often very vocal in social groups. Interspecifically territorial with red-bellied woodpeckers, but normally more of an open-country bird than the red-bellied.

feeding ecology and diet

Often sallies from a perch to capture flying insects or to seize arthropods and other small animals from the ground. It then often takes its captured prey to the top of a stub or utility pole that it regularly uses as a "chopping block" to remove legs and other hard parts before eating. Takes considerable fruit, acorns, beechnuts, and other nuts in season and will sometimes cache these in cavities.

reproductive biology

Poor cavity excavator and frequently uses old cavities or usurps a fresh cavity from other species such as the red-bellied woodpecker. When it excavates a cavity of its own, it is usually in a well-rotted stub with a pre-existing crack that often forms a flat side to the cavity entrance. Both pair members share cavity excavation, incubation, and care of young. Nesting normally occurs between April and August. Clutch size varies from 3 to 10 eggs, but is usually 4–5 eggs; incubation lasts 12–13 days; young fledge at about 37–29 days. The red-headed woodpecker often loses cavities to European starlings.

conservation status

Not threatened, but suffers high mortality due to being hit by vehicles when it comes to roads for insects; also suffers in competition with European starlings.

significance to humans

Among the Chitimacha Indians of Louisiana, there is a folktale about a great flood from which the red-headed woodpecker escaped drowning by clinging to a cloud, but its tail hung down into the dark water and to this day it has a black tail as a result. The red feathers of red-headed woodpeckers have been highly valued by Native Americans and used decoratively.

Bennett's woodpecker

Campethera bennettii

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Chrysoptilus bennettii A. Smith, 1836, western Transvaal, South Africa. Two races recognized.

other common names

English: Specklethroated woodpecker, Reichenow's woodpecker; French: Pic de Bennett; German: Bennettsspecht; Spanish: Pico de Bennett.

physical characteristics

About 9.5 in (24 cm); 2.2–3 oz (61–84 g). A small, brownish yellow woodpecker with heavy spotting on underparts; male has a red forehead to the nape, a red "moustache," and white ear coverts; female has a red nape, black-and-white mottled forehead, brown throat and ear coverts, a buff wash on the breast, and less intense spotting on the underparts; juveniles are darker above and more spotted below, with a white-spotted black crown.

distribution

Lake Victoria region, western Tanganyika and southeastern Congo to Angola, central Kalahari Desert, Damaraland, southern Zimbabwe, and Transvaal. C. b. bennettii, most of range except for southern Angola, southwestern Zambia, northern Namibia, and northern Botswana; C. b. capricorni, southwest parts of range including southern Angola, southwestern Zambia, northern Namibia, and northern Botswana. Absent from large areas.

habitat

Uses a wide range of open forest and bush habitats, especially acacia, miombo, and Brachystegia.

behavior

A territorial, but social species found in pairs or family groups. Much of its time is spent on bare ground or in short-grass areas, including lawns. May show some migration in drier parts of its range.

feeding ecology and diet

Highly terrestrial in its search for food, but also forages on low trunks and larger limbs of trees. Often accompanies glossy starlings (Lamprotornis) when foraging. Diet includes mainly ants, termites, and their larvae and pupae, but also other arthropods.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeds from August to February, with nesting peaking in October and November in Zimbabwe and Transvaal. Nests are often in open areas and often in cavities excavated by other species. Clutch size 2–5 eggs; incubation lasts 15–18 days; parental duties carried out by both parents. Nest cavities may be reused.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Gray woodpecker

Dendropicos goertae

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus goertae P. L. S. Müller, 1776, Senegal. At least eight races described, four currently recognized.

other common names

English: African gray woodpecker; French: Pic gris; German: Graubrustspecht; Spanish: Pico Gris.

physical characteristics

About 8 in (20 cm); 1.4–1.9 oz (40.5–52.5 g). A small woodpecker with a long, straight, rather broad bill; upperparts are unbarred green or brownish green with a red rump and barred brown tail; underparts are gray with an orange to yellow belly patch and some barring on flanks. Male has a pale, striped, gray head with a red hindcrown and nape; female lacks red on head.

distribution

Found in a broad swath of forest and savanna habitats in central and West Africa; from sea level to 9,800 ft (3,000 m). D. g. goerte, West Africa to Sudan, south to northeastern Zaïre; D. g. koenigi, the Sahel zone across central eastern Mali, Niger, Chad, to western Sudan; D. g. abessinicus, eastern and northern Sudan and northern and western Ethiopia; D. g. meridionalis, south central Zaire, probably to southern Gabon and northwestern Angola.

habitat

Wooded and savanna areas, thickets with large trees, riverine forest, gardens, mangroves in some areas.

behavior

Found in pairs and family groups, moves rapidly through its habitat. Often at forest edge.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages on the ground and in live and dead trees, especially trunk and larger limbs. Occasionally takes insects in flight. Diet includes ants, termites, beetle larvae, and other arthropods.

reproductive biology

Nesting is from December to June in west, December to February and July to September in Zaire, and February to July and September to November in eastern Africa; sexes share nest cavity excavation at 1–60 ft (0.3–18.3 m) above ground in a dead tree or dead stub of a live tree. Clutch size 2–4 eggs. No data on incubation, parental care, or fledging.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-cockaded woodpecker

Picoides borealis

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus borealis Vieillot, 1807, North America (specific locality unknown, but arbitrarily decided to be Mount Pleasant, South Carolina). Two subspecies described, Picoides borealis borealis from most of the species range, and P. b. hylonomus from central and southern Florida. Researchers have discounted the latter race in the late twentieth century.

other common names

French: Pic boreal; German: Kokardenspecht; Spanish: Carpintero de Cresta Roja.

physical characteristics

About 8.7 in (22 cm); 1.4–1.9 oz (40–55 g). Medium black-and-white woodpecker; primary distinguishing characteristics include large white cheek patches with ladder back; males have several tiny red feathers between white cheek patch and black

crown, but the red is usually concealed; females lack the red; immature males may have irregular red patch on forehead, immature females tend to have white flecks on lower forehead.

distribution

Southeastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas, southern Missouri, south central Kentucky, central Tennessee, to southeastern Maryland, south to southern Florida and across the Gulf coast. Now extirpated from Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Maryland. Vagrants have shown up as far north as Illinois and New Jersey.

habitat

Extensive, open, old-growth pine forest, naturally maintained by lightning-started fires.

behavior

The red-cockaded woodpecker is a very social species that lives in extended family groups including one breeding pair, their offspring from recent nesting efforts, and males from earlier nesting efforts. The group forages over an area averaging about 200 acres (80 ha) in good habitat and more than 1,000 acres (400 ha) in poor habitat. Cavities are in living pines, usually below the lowest branch, in trees infected with the red-heart fungus. Cavities persist sometimes for decades and are used multiple years as nest and roost sites, inherited by males who remain with the group. Birds peck tiny holes, called resin wells, above and below each cavity. These are continually worked so they provide a steady flow of sticky resin, which is an effective barrier against tree-climbing rat snakes (Elaphe).

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on tree-surface arthropods obtained from the surface and by scaling loose bark from the tree. Males tend to forage mostly on limbs and trunk of pines above the lowest branch, females on the trunk below the lowest branch.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, but a cooperative breeder; nest is in the roost cavity of the breeding male. Clutch size typically 2–5 eggs; incubation period 10–11 days; young fledge at 26–29 days; offspring cared for by both parents and helpers.

conservation status

Vulnerable, and listed as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act; populations have suffered from habitat fragmentation and deforestation, cutting of old-growth pine forests, and control of natural fire.

significance to humans

Needs of this species conflict with desires of forest industry to cut young pines; birders travel to the southeastern United States specifically to see this bird.

Three-toed woodpecker

Picoides tridactylus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus tridactylus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Although North American and Eurasian populations appear similar, recent studies suggest significant genetic differences. Three races are recognized in the New World, five in Eurasia.

other common names

English: Northern three-toed woodpecker; French: Pic tridactyl; German: Dreizehenspecht; Spanish: Pico Tridáctilo.

physical characteristics

8–9.5 in (20–24 cm); 1.6–2.7 oz (46–76 g) a medium-sized woodpecker with black above, white below, varying extent of barring on flanks and white on back; male has a yellow forehead and crown, female has a whitish crown with fine black streaks; immature has duller plumage that is somewhat brown; only three toes on each foot.

distribution

Resident from near the tree line in northern Alaska, northern Canada, northern Eurasia, south to northern tier of United States, mountains of southern Europe, western China, northern Mongolia, northern Korea, and Japan. Wanders south in winter to New England, north central United States. P. t. tridactylus, northern Eurasia, Scandinavia, Latvia, to Mongolia, southeastern Siberia, and Sakhalin Island; P. t. crissoleucus, northern taiga from Urals to Sea of Okhotsk; P. t. albidor, Kamchatka; P. t. alpinus, mountains of central, southern, and southeastern Europe, northeastern Korea, Hokkaido, Japan;P. t. funebris, southwestern China to Tibet; P. t. dorsalis, Rocky Mountains, Montana to Arizona and New Mexico; P. t. fasciatus, western North America, Alaska, and Yukon south to Oregon; P. t. bacatus, eastern North America, Alberta east to Labrador and Newfoundland, south to Minnesota and New York.

habitat

Coniferous forest; less often mixed coniferous-deciduous forest.

behavior

Nonmigratory, often very quiet; very arboreal; populations respond to forest insect outbreaks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on wood-boring insects, their larvae and pupae; forages lower in winter than at other times; when sexes forage together, females forage higher than males.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeding activities generally extend from mid-March through June; nest cavities usually excavated in dead stub; pair share excavation, incubation, and care of young; clutch size 3–6 eggs; incubation period 11–14 days; young fledge at 22–26 days.

conservation status

Fairly common, not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Smoky-brown woodpecker

Veniliornis fumigatus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus fumigatus d'Orbigny, 1840, Corrientes Province, Argentina, and Yungas, Bolivia. Five races recognized.

other common names

English: Brown woodpecker; French: Pic enfumé German: Russpecht; Spanish: Carpintero Pardo.

physical characteristics

5.9–6.7 in (15–17 cm); 1.1–1.8 oz (31–50 g). A very plain woodpecker with no color pattern evident in its plumage and no crest; smoky brown overall; adult male has dark gray nape feathers tipped with red, back and scapular feathers are tawnyolivaceous with a golden, sometimes orange-red wash; adult female similar to male, but with nape feathers tipped with brown; juveniles similar to adult, but plumage duller.

distribution

Found from Nayarit and southeastern San Luis Potosi in Mexico, through Central America to Colombia and northern

Venezuela, south along the west slope of the Andes to north central Peru and along the east slope of the Andes to northwestern Argentina. V. f. oleaginous, eastern Mexico; V. f. sanguinolentus, central Mexico to western Panama; V. f. reichenbachi, eastern Panama, northern Venezuela, Colombia to eastern Ecuador; V. f. fumigatus, upper Amazonia; V. f. obscuratus, northwestern Peru to northwestern Argentina.

habitat

Evergreen forests of mountains and lowlands, including secondary forests of tropical and subtropical areas; seems to prefer smaller tree trunks to larger ones.

behavior

A resident species that often travels in pairs and, after nesting, in family groups, often in mixed species flocks; a rather inconspicuous species that moves about the forest canopy as well as tangled vines of the understory.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages high in broken canopy and lower at edges on small branches or vines; seems to prefer edges in lowland forest where it may forage low, but as with many species, this "preference" could be a function of where birders can most easily see them and careful study is needed. Often uses second growth. Diet seems to favor small wood-boring beetles and their larvae.

reproductive biology

Nesting occurs February–May. Nest excavated in a fence post, utility pole, or tree trunk, 5–25 feet (1.5–7.6 m) up. Reported clutch size of 4 eggs; no information on young or parental care.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Guadeloupe woodpecker

Melanerpes herminieri

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus herminieri Lesson, 1830.

other common names

French: Pic de la Guadeloupe; German: Guadeloupespecht; Spanish: Carpintero de Guadeloupe.

physical characteristics

9.4 in (24 cm), 3.1–3.5 oz (87–100 g); glossy black above and black with dull red overtones below. Sexes alike. Juveniles less glossy and with dull red-orange tinge below.

distribution

Found only in Guadeloupe in the West Indies; 75% of the population of 10,000+ birds are on the more forested island of Basse-Terre.

habitat

Semi-deciduous to evergreen forest, including upland, mangrove, and swamp forest.

behavior

Moves deliberately through the forest; returns frequently to fruit-bearing trees.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages mainly on trunks and larger branches; diet includes insects, fruit, and seeds.

reproductive biology

Typically excavates nest cavity in the trunk of a dead stub; nesting occurs February–August; both parents share incubation of 3–5 eggs; incubation period 14–16 days; young fledge at 33–37 days.

conservation status

The Guadeloupe woodpecker is considered a Near Threatened species; clearcutting, conversion of forest habitats to other uses, and removal of dead trees are major threats; introduced rats may prey on eggs and nestlings.

White-backed woodpecker

Dendrocopos leucotos

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus leucotos Bechstein, 1802.

other common names

English: Owston's woodpecker; French: Pic à dos blanc; German: Weissrückenspecht; Spanish: Carpintero de Lomo Blanco.

physical characteristics

9.8–11.0 in (25–28 cm), 3.2–5.6 oz (92–158 g); A pied woodpecker with white cheeks, white forehead and lower back, white breast shading to pale pink and deeper pink vent area; male with prominent red cap; female with black cap. Birds in southeast Europe have vermiculated white back.

distribution

Found in a broad band across forested areas of northern Eurasia from Fennoscandia to Kamchatka and Japan; many isolated populations in montane and island areas

habitat

Wet mixed forest, often near rivers or lakes

behavior

Has a large home range, moving great distances to areas with many dead and dying trees in order to find preferred foods. Drumming has been likened to a bouncing ping-pong ball— a strong beginning accelerating to a weaker end "bouncing to a halt."

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on insects, especially wood–boring beetles; spends considerable time excavating beetle larvae from near the base of willows and alders.

reproductive biology

Courtship often begins in February; nests often high in rotted stub or utility pole; clutch of 3–5 eggs incubated by both parents for 14–16 days; both adults tend nestlings which fledge at 27–28 days.

conservation status

Not threatened globally, but considered regionally threatened by forest clearing and disturbance.

significance to humans

None known.

Black woodpecker

Dryocopus martius

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus martius Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Two races recognized.

other common names

French: Pic noir; German: Schwarzspecht; Spanish: Pito Negro.

physical characteristics

17.7–22.4 in (45–57 cm); 9.2–13 oz (260–370 g). Crow-sized; black, pale bill, and whitish eyes; male has raspberry red crown; female a red nape; juveniles similar to adults, but duller, looser-textured plumage.

distribution

Cool-temperate Eurasia; from western Europe north to the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia and east to Japan and Kamchatka. D. m. martius, most of range except for southwestern China and Tibet; D. m. khamensis, southwestern China and Tibet.

habitat

Mature coniferous, mixed, or deciduous forest. A pair normally needs 750–1,000 acres (300–400 ha) of forest.

behavior

Resident; solitary or in pairs; spring drumming on resonant limb or stub is very loud and low in tone; climbs by "hopping" up a trunk or limb; flies with direct "crowlike" flight.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds mostly on ants and their larvae and pupae, but also takes larvae of wood-boring beetles, occasionally other insects, nuts, and seeds, and rarely fruit.

reproductive biology

Courtship may begin in January, but nesting is primarily late March to May; nest usually placed high in a large stub. About 75% of nests are in decayed but living trees. Clutch size 3–5 eggs; incubation lasts 12–14 days; young usually fledge at 27–28 days. Both parents incubate and care for young; young are fed by regurgitation.

conservation status

Not threatened; many populations increased during the late twentieth century, though there were local declines associated with habitat fragmentation and loss.

significance to humans

None known, except as a symbol of "wildness."

Gray-faced woodpecker

Picus canus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus canus Gmelin, 1788. Hybridization with Eurasian green woodpecker known. Eleven subspecies recognized.

other common names

English: Gray-headed woodpecker, gray-headed green woodpecker, ashy woodpecker, black-naped woodpecker; French: Pic cendré; German: Grauspecht; Spanish: Pito Cano.

physical characteristics

10.2–13.0 in (26–33 cm), 3.9–7.3 oz (110–206 g); back olive green, yellow-green rump, gray head, narrow black "moustache," breast light gray-green; male with small red patch on lower forehead; female without red.

distribution

Central and eastern Europe through central Asia to Himalayas; Southeast Asia through China, Manchuria, Korea, Hokkaido, Hainan, Taiwan, Sumatra. Subspecies can be divided into two major groups: 2 subspecies found in northern Eurasia; 9 found in southeast and east Asia.

habitat

Found in a great diversity of forest habitats: moist bottomland forest to open park-like, to uplands with many conifers.

behavior

Monogamous, normally solitary; territorial during breeding. Often winters in riparian areas and closer to humans; some nomadic winter movements.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet is mostly ants and termites and their brood, but also includes other arthropods, fruit, nuts, nectar, and eggs of other birds; in many areas it especially frequents old aspen trees.

reproductive biology

Nest cavity in decayed wood excavated by both sexes; clutch of 4–9 white eggs incubated by both parents for 14–17 days; young cared for by both parents (rarely by a helper); fledge at 23–27 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Lesser flame-backed woodpecker

Dinopium benghalense

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Dinopium benghalense Linnaeus, 1758.

other common names

English: Black-rumped flameback, black-rumped golden-backed woodpecker, lesser golden-backed woodpecker; French: Pic du Bengale; German: Orangespecht; Spanish: Pico Lomo en Llamas.

physical characteristics

10.2–11.4 in (26–29 cm), 3.0–4.7 oz (86–133 g); a medium redcrested woodpecker; black mantle, lower back, and rump; yellow to yellow-green mid-back and wings; black tail; breast white with feathers edged in black. Male's forehead is red to bill; female's forehead is black with white spots. Race from Sri Lanka has back and wings deep red, more black on head.

distribution

Indian subcontinent.

habitat

Diverse forest and cultivated areas.

behavior

Seen in pairs and in mixed species flocks. Pair members keep in contact with one another using frequent loud rattling calls. Breaks into leaf nests of ants. Frequents coconut plantations and wooded gardens.

feeding ecology and diet

Primary food is ants, but takes other arthropods, fruit, and nectar.

reproductive biology

Nests in March to April in most areas, again in July and August in south; from December to September in Sri Lanka. Clutch of 2–3 white eggs is incubated by both parents for 17–19 days; both adults feed young by regurgitation; young fledge at 21–23 days; sometimes a second brood is raised.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Sphyrapicus varius

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus varius Linnaeus, 1766, based on a drawing by Mark Catesby from South Carolina.

other common names

English: Common sapsucker; French: Pic maculé; German: Feuerkopf-Saftlecker; Spanish: Carpintero de Paso.

physical characteristics

7.5–8.7 in (19–22 cm); 1.4–2.2 oz (40–62 g). Small black-and-white woodpecker with short, chisel-tipped bill; easily distinguished by white stripe that extends down the wing of perched birds. Adult male has a red throat, forehead, and crown; female a white throat and a somewhat paler red forehead and crown. Juveniles have considerable brown and buff and initially upper-parts are somewhat barred; they also have much less white and much less red in crown.

distribution

Breeds in northern North America east of the Rocky Mountains across Canada from northeastern British Columbia to southern Labrador and Newfoundland, south to North Dakota and Connecticut, with some disjunct populations in the Appalachians of eastern Tennessee and northern Georgia.

Winters in eastern United States through eastern and southern Mexico and Central America, Bahamas, and West Indies.

habitat

Within its breeding range it is found in deciduous and mixed forest and is especially associated with aspen (Populus), in which it often excavates nest cavities, and birch (Betula) and hickory (Carya), which also provide sap resources. Winters in many wooded habitats, including urban parks.

behavior

Typically solitary and often inconspicuous outside the breeding season. Sapsuckers maintain an "orchard" of trees with sapwells from which they obtain food. Males migrate shorter distances than females and return earlier than females to breeding areas.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on beetles and their larvae, ants, other arthropods, and extensively on sweet sap from diseased trees, which it obtains by pecking small holes (sap wells) into the cambium. Also takes insects attracted to the sap wells. Berries are also taken and sometimes fed to nestlings.

reproductive biology

Most nests are in living trees that are infected with a heartrot fungus. Cavity entrances are very small, such that a sapsucker often has to squeeze to get in. Clutch size averages 4–5 eggs, but varies geographically, increasing from south to north. Incubation lasts 12–13 days and is shared by parents; young fledge at 25–29 days of age and become independent about two weeks later.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

At times considered a pest and damaging to shade and fruit trees. More detailed knowledge of interrelationships between sapsuckers and the trees they feed on suggests that they select injured and diseased trees because these trees produce a sweeter sap. Many other animals take advantage of the sapsucker's sap wells.

Okinawa woodpecker

Sapheopipo noguchii

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus noguchii Seebohm, 1887, Okinawa.

other common names

English: Pryer's woodpecker; French: Pic d'Okinawa; German: Okinawaspecht; Spanish: Pico de Okinawa.

physical characteristics

12.2–13.8 in (31–35 cm). An earth-toned bird; the male has a rusty red cap from the forehead to the nape; female has a black cap from forehead to nape; both have a gray throat and belly with deep red tones on the back and wings; prominent white spotting on primary feathers; black at edge of cap accents a lighter gray-brown face; rump red, tail black; immatures are duller and grayer.

distribution

Found only in the central mountain range of Yambaru, the northern part of the island Okinawa, Japan.

habitat

Restricted to old-growth subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest; breeding range seems limited by a need for large dead limbs for nest and roost cavity excavation.

behavior

A highly vocal species that spends most of its time foraging at lower levels in the forest.

feeding ecology and diet

In spite of its rarity, the Okinawa woodpecker seems to have a broad foraging niche, searching for arthropods on larger branches and trunks, among canopy leaves, on downed wood, and in leaf litter on the ground; also opportunistically feeds on other small animals and on fruit.

reproductive biology

Nesting activity begins as early as February, but typically in March and continues through mid-June. It excavates nest cavities primarily in old, partially dead Castonpsis cuspidate and Machilus thunbergii trees. Typically one or two nestlings are raised. No other details available.

conservation status

Critically Endangered due to habitat destruction and population fragmentation. Population estimates since 1950 have ranged from 40 to about 200 birds. In 1977, undisturbed forest was limited to about 1,100 acres (450 ha) and has since declined. The Okinawa woodpecker has been declared a "Natural Monument" and "Special Bird for Protection" by the Japanese government. The population remains highest in a military training area that is off-limits to civilians. Some expansion into secondary forest was noted in the late twentieth century.

significance to humans

None known.

Great slaty woodpecker

Mulleripicus pulverulentus

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus pulverulentus Temminck, 1826, Java and Sumatra. Two subspecies.

other common names

French: Pic meunier; German: Puderspecht; Spanish: Pico Pizarro.

physical characteristics

19–20 in (48–50 cm); 12.7–20 oz (360–563 g). The largest Old World woodpecker; "lanky" in appearance; male is gray on top of the head and hind neck, with a slight crest, a pale red "moustache," yellow-white throat with red-tipped feathers, and the rest of the body dark gray, darkest on the wings and tail; female is similar, but lacks the red; immature is dark gray tinged with brown.

distribution

Northern India to southwest China, Southeast Asia to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Philippines. M. p. pulverulentus, Malayasia, Sumatra, Riouw Archipelago, Java, Borneo, North Natuna Islands, east to Palawan; M. p. harterti, India, Nepal, east to southwestern China and Indochina.

habitat

Extensive forested areas, including second growth, up to about 1,000 feet (300 m).

behavior

Nonmigratory; often seen in pairs or small (family?) groups; voice described as "almost honking" to a distinctive whinny; flight is less undulating than smaller woodpeckers. Displays include head-swinging with both wings and tail extended; drums loudly.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages mostly in tall trees, where it excavates larvae of wood-boring beetles and other arthropods, but also feeds on ants on the ground and occasionally hawks flying ants and other insects.

reproductive biology

Nests from March through August; both sexes excavate nest cavity, but male dominates; nest is generally high (27–135 ft;8.2–41 m), dug into very large stubs or branches. Clutch includes 2–4 eggs; no data on incubation period or age at fledging; both sexes incubate and care for young; young may remain with parents until next nesting season.

conservation status

Not threatened, but uncommon to rare (e.g., Java and Sumatra), and threatened locally by deforestation.

significance to humans

None known, but probably eaten when accessible.

Ivory-billed woodpecker

Campephilus principalis

subfamily

Picinae

taxonomy

Picus principalis Linnaeus, 1758, based on Mark Catesby's drawing of the "Largest White-bill Woodpecker" from South Carolina. Two subspecies recognized.

other common names

French: Pic à bec ivoire; German: Elfelbeinspecht; Spanish: Carpintero Real.

physical characteristics

18.5–21 in (47–54 cm); 15.5–18.3 oz (440–570 g). A very large, black woodpecker with white lines extending down the neck on each side to the upper base of the wing, white secondaries and inner primaries, a very robust, chisel-tipped, ivory-colored bill; male has a pointed crest that is black in front and scarlet behind; female has a longer, more pointed, somewhat recurved solid black crest.

distribution

C. p. principalis formerly found in southeastern United States from eastern Texas to North Carolina and north to southern Illinois and southern Ohio; C. p. bairdi formerly in forested areas throughout Cuba. Most recent known populations are from northeastern Louisiana, Florida, and northeastern Cuba. May now be extinct, though continued unverified reports in southeastern Cuba, southeastern Louisiana, and Florida provide hope.

habitat

Extensive old-growth forest, especially bottomland forest, but also pine uplands in both the United States and Cuba; habitat losses resulted in last North American populations being in bottomlands and last Cuban populations being in upland pines.

behavior

Wanders over a home range of 6 sq mi (15.5 sq km) or more; perhaps somewhat social, often seen in family groups; characteristic call is a plaintive, single-or double-note nasal tooting that has been likened to a child's "tin horn" and that can be mimicked by blowing on a clarinet mouthpiece; mechanical sound produced is a hard single pound on a resonant surface followed immediately by another such that the second sounds like an echo of the first. This mechanical sound is characteristic of Campephilus woodpeckers and is called the "double rap."

feeding ecology and diet

Visits recently dead trees and with its heavy, chisel-like bill, knocks large slabs of bark from the tree to reveal subsurface arthropods. Feeds extensively on the larvae of large wood-boring beetles, especially Cerambycidae; also takes other arthropods and fruit in season.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; known to breed from January through April in North America and March through June in Cuba, but few data are available. Nest cavity is in a large dead tree or in a live tree with extensive heartrot. Recorded nests have been 24–50 ft (7.3–15.2 m) up; cavity entrance typically taller than wide, but shape varies. Clutch 2–4 eggs; incubation by both parents; incubation period and age at fledging not known; young may remain with parents until next breeding season.

conservation status

Critically Endangered by all criteria; may be extinct. The major factor leading to current status has been loss and fragmentation of old-growth forest, but other factors have been nineteenth century killing of birds by scientists, amateur collectors, Native Americans, and hunters, and probably more recent limitation of natural fire. In North America, confusion with the similar-sized and similar-appearing pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) leads to many false sightings.

significance to humans

Bills and scalps of males were culturally important to Native Americans, apparently symbolic of successful warfare. They were often used to decorate war pipes and medicine bundles and were widely traded outside the range of the species. Early Europeans in North America also killed the birds for their bills and used them for such things as watch fobs. In the late 1800s, there was a brisk trade in skins and eggs among private and professional collectors. In both the United States and Cuba, ivory-bills were occasionally eaten. The ivory-bill has become symbolic of rarity. Collector prints, ceramic ivorybills, trade cards with ivory-bills on them, and use of ivory-bills in advertisements have drawn much attention to the species.

Resources

Books

Frugis, S., G. Malaguzzi, G. Vicini, and P. Cristina. Guida ai Picchi del Mondo. Torino, Italy: Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Monografia VII, 1988.

Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban., eds. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, 1988.

Garrido, O. H., and A. Kirkconnell. Field Guide to the Birds of Cuba. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000.

Jackson, J. A. "Ivory-billed Woodpecker Campephilus principalis principalis." In Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida: Birds, edited by J. A. Rodgers and H. W. Kale, II. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996.

MacKinnon, J., and K. Phillipps. A Field Guide to the Birds of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Moore, W. S., and V. R. DeFilippis. "The Window of Taxonomic Resolution for Phylogenies Based on Mitochondrial Cytochrome b." In Avian Molecular Evolution and Systematics, edited by D. P. Mindell. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997.

Sick, H. (translated by W. Belton). Birds in Brazil. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins et al. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 1. Concise edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and D. Nurnie. Woodpeckers: A Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995.

Periodicals

Jackson, J. A. "Red-cockaded Woodpecker Picoides borealis." Birds of North America 85 (1994).

Other

Bent, A. C. Life Histories of North American Woodpeckers. United States National Museum Bulletin 174, 1939.

Lawrence, L. D. K. A Comparative Life-History Study of Four Species of Woodpeckers. AOU Ornithological Monographs No. 5, 1967.

Short, L. L. Woodpeckers of the World. Greenville, Delaware: Delaware Museum of Natural History, Monograph Series Number 4, 1982.

Tanner, J. T. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Research Report Number 1, New York: National Audubon Society, 1942.

Jerome A. Jackson, PhD