Puffbirds

(Bucconidae)

Class Aves

Order Piciformes

Suborder Galbulae

Family Bucconidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium-sized birds, usually with short tails, rounded wings, and fairly robust bills; some are more streamlined

Size
5.12–11.42 in (13–29 cm); 0.49–3.74 oz (14–106 g)

Number of genera, species
7 genera, 32 species

Habitat
Dry and humid forest, and wooded savanna

Conservation status
Near Threatened: 1 species

Distribution
Central America and South America south to northern Argentina

Evolution and systematics

Palaeontological evidence suggests that puffbirds may have arisen from a rather ancient lineage. Certainly fossils of a similar family of birds, named Primobucconidae because they seem closest to modern puffbirds, have been found in widespread Eocene deposits, and are even tentatively identified from Europe. It seems clear that small non-passerines similar to puffbirds were dominant perching birds of the Eocene in both hemispheres.

Despite vacillations regarding the overall taxonomic placement of puffbirds, their closest relatives have never been in doubt: a convincing array of morphological features indicates a link with jacamars (Galbulidae). The two families are traditionally combined to form the Galbulae, a suborder within Piciformes. They differ in bill shape, general comportment, the form of the spinal cord (puffbirds exhibit Piciforme design, jacamars that of Coraciiformes), and number of ribs.

The relationship between these two families and other Piciformes and Coraciiformes is controversial. The association between puffbirds and other Piciforme taxa is apparently weak, supported by few characters, and discounted by an equal number of features that suggest a Coraciiforme origin. It seems safer to treat the Galbulae in an order of its own (Galbuliformes). The generic structure of Bucconidae is contested and needs review as of 2002.

Physical characteristics

The name puffbird is applied to the family because of an unusual propensity of its members to puff up their feathers when alarmed. Even when not alarmed they seem large-headed and large-eyed, with robust, slightly curved or hook-tipped bills. Puffbird wings tend to be short and rounded (there are 10 primaries and 12 rectrices), and their tails tend to be short and narrow, though broader and longer in some nunbirds (Monasa). Plumage is soft and loose. Feet are small and zygodactylous (two toes before and two behind), with the first and fourth digits permanently reversed. The most divergent species is the swallow-winged puffbird (Chelidoptera tenebrosa), which has more tapered wings and a shorter bill than other family members.

Unlike jacamars with their gaudy garb, puffbird plumage lacks colorful tones or iridescence. Nevertheless, most have

very striking plumage patterns, such as sharply demarcated breast bands, or streaked and spotted underparts. Puffbirds are generally sexually monomorphic: only two species of Malacoptila exhibit sex-related plumage differences, and in one of these the variation is minor.

Distribution

The puffbird family is essentially Neotropical, its northernmost limit tallying with the extent of humid forest in southern Mexico. Likewise, it extends no further south than Paraguay and northern Argentina, the southern outposts of tall forest and dry woodland. Between these extremes, puff-birds are absent from all islands beyond the continental shelf, suggesting that they do not disperse well over water. They reach their greatest diversity in northern South America, particularly Amazonia; no fewer than 70% of puffbirds occur in Brazil. Their arboreal nature ties their distribution roughly to that of evergreen or deciduous woodland, although no species has adapted to the southern beech (Nothofagus) forests of Chile and Argentina.

Habitat

Puffbirds are exclusively arboreal when foraging. While the majority inhabit lowland humid forest, they are not deep-forest species. Most are apparently birds of forest edge, tree-fall gaps, streamsides, lakesides, and clearings, where horizontal perches are abundant and tangled vines tumble from the canopy to the lower strata. However, this conclusion might sometimes result from observational bias: it is possible that species, particularly those generally confined to the canopy, are more difficult to find in continuous forest than at gaps or streams, where a better view is afforded of the forest's upper levels. Some of these species might range largely undetected across forest canopies.

Several species of puffbird have adapted to semi-arid habitat or open woodland. A few more occupy foothill and submontane forest in the Andes. Most of these reach only the 3,280-ft (1,000-m) contour, but the black-streaked puffbird (Malacoptila fulvogularis) has been recorded up to 7,550 ft (2,300 m), and the white-faced nunbird (Hapaloptila castanea) to 9,500 ft (2,900 m). Habitat choice depends on a complex interaction of environmental factors, including competition with related and unrelated birds. For example, the rufous-capped nunlet (Nonnula ruficapilla) is confined to bamboo or riverine regrowth in some areas, but is much more general in its habitat selection in others.

Behavior

Puffbirds, to varying degrees, are sit-and-wait predators that perch motionless for prolonged periods, searching their surroundings for movement. Their stillness renders them difficult to locate, and this presumably benefits them in terms of concealment from predators and prey alike. Nunbirds are more active and noisy than most, and groups often draw attention to themselves by bickering, chorusing, and more frequently switching perching position.

The flight of most puffbirds is quick and direct on whirring wings. Nunbirds behave slightly differently, often interspersing series of wingbeats with glides, and sometimes wheeling briefly under the canopy. Flight pattern and fuller tail shape derive from the more aerial foraging niche. The most aerial of all puffbirds, however, is the swallow-winged puffbird. This species perches conspicuously at the pinnacle of trees, or on high bare branches, and frequently launches itself to catch flying insects with great skill and maneuverability. It finds all its food on the wing.

Most puffbirds appear to defend year-round territories, using vocalizations to signal their presence, attract mates, and deter rivals. Although they are generally solitary birds, some occur in small groups, presumably extended family parties. Group-living nunbirds give cacophonous semi-coordinated choruses, while some pair-living species, such as the white-eared puffbird (Nystalus chacuru), sing loud coordinated duets. Very few reports of seasonal movements have emerged. At the upper edge of altitudinal limits, or the southernmost extent of some species ranges, minor migrations may occur in response to seasonal conditions.

Feeding ecology and diet

So reclusive are their lifestyles that little has been reported about the diet of most puffbirds. It seems that all are predominantly insectivorous, with at least the swallow-winged puffbird being entirely so. Most species take other arthropods, and several have been reported to eat lizards, small snakes, and frogs. Some puffbirds take advantage of marauding troops of primates or oropendolas, following them through the forest and pursuing prey that is forced to flee, drop, or otherwise abandon camouflage. For the same reason, some species also attend ant swarms, and nunbirds are often noted accompanying mixed-species flocks of birds passing through the canopy or mid-levels, although this latter tactic is probably adopted as much to reduce predation pressure as to increase foraging efficiency.

The importance of vegetable matter in puffbird diets is low, but some species have been reported taking fruit, berries, and buds. Fruit consumption seems greatest in higher-altitude species such as the lanceolated monklet (Micromonacha lanceolata) and white-faced nunbird.

Reproductive biology

Most puffbirds are monogamous, defending pair territories year round, and breeding at varying seasons throughout their ranges depending on rainfall patterns. Nunbirds breed cooperatively in groups of up to five, and the aberrant swallow-winged puffbird appears to breed in non-territorial groupings.

From the available data it seems that some genera (Notharchus, Bucco, and Hypnelus) usually occupy cavities excavated in arboreal termitaria (ant beds), while others (Nystalus, Monasa, and Chelidoptera) habitually dig terrestrial burrows into sand or soil. In intermediate cases (Malacoptila and Nonnula), both types of site have been reported. Nesting in tree holes is inconclusively documented, but at least one species is known to use the abandoned mud nests of palelegged horneros (Furnarius leucopus).

Nests are usually excavated by both members of the pair, cavities being of variable length and terminating in a rounded chamber without lining. Ground nests are dug at a shallow angle into flat or gently sloping terrain. Smaller species may complete burrows only 20 in (50 cm) long; larger species may dig for 60 in (150 cm). In some species, a frame of leaves around the entrance is thought to function as camouflage. In black-fronted nunbirds (Monasa nigrifrons) at least, a pile of leaves is regularly tossed over the nest hole to conceal it; there are reports from the closely related black nunbird (M. atra) of an antechamber—a tunnel running under leaves to the entrance.

Puffbird eggs are relatively small, dull or glossy white, and normally produced in clutches of 2–3. The incubation period is about 15 days in swallow-winged puffbirds. A period of two days is thought to elapse between the laying of each egg. Both sexes incubate, and no puffbird species raises more than one brood per year.

Chicks hatch blind and naked, but are remarkably mobile. Within the first day they crawl to the cavity entrance, thus allowing the adults to deliver food without entering. The male apparently contributes entirely to brooding in the first few days after hatching, the female carrying out all provisioning at this time. After about nine days, brooding is no longer necessary, but the female continues to feed the chicks far more than the male. The fledging period is 20–30 days. Young puff-birds probably remain on the natal territory for almost a year in some cases. Groups of up to five nunbirds have been counted attending an active nest, but it is not clear whether this entails a dominant pair accompanied by offspring from previous broods.

Conservation status

In general, puffbird populations must be declining throughout South and Central America simply because the area of standing forest is shrinking, although any species with a real predilection for edge habitats might be faring rather better. The swallow-winged puffbird has probably increased in numbers with the opening up of Amazonian forests by man. No species is currently considered threatened, and only the sooty-capped puffbird (Nystactes noanamae) is classified as Near Threatened. This species is confined to the Chocó Endemic Bird Area in western Colombia, where it is generally uncommon. Recent

records come from very few sites, although much of its potential range awaits thorough exploration.

Significance to humans

Their insectivory, apparent lethargy, infrequent singing, and dull coloration make puffbirds unsuitable pets and they rarely appear as cage birds. Their somber aspect gives rise to common names such as "nunbirds" and "monklets." They thus have almost no significance to humans apart from being the frequent brunt of insults in the literature. Many observers, from the distant past to the present, have described puffbirds as either stupid or lazy because they perch motionless for such long periods and allow men with guns or slingshots to approach closely. These derogatory terms are rather unfairly leveled at puffbirds because stillness is an integral part of their foraging niche and antipredator response. Moreover, the lightning dashes they make across fairly long distances to snatch mobile insects are indication that they are alert and effective hunters.

Species accounts

List of Species

White-necked puffbird

Notharchus macrorhynchos

taxonomy

Bucco macrorhynchos J. F. Gmelin, 1788, Cayenne. Forms a superspecies with N. swainsoni of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. Two subspecies.

other common names

French: Tamatia à gros bec; German: Weißhals-faulvogel; Spanish: Buco Picogordo.

physical characteristics

11 in (25 cm); 2.9–3.7 oz (81–106 g). Black upperparts and broad chest band, white forehead, collar, throat and belly. Variable dark barring on flanks. Bill and feet black.

distribution

N. m. hyperrhynchus: Mexico south to Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, eastern Peru, northern Bolivia, and western Brazil; N.m. macrorhynchos: eastern Venezuela, the Guianas, and northern Brazil south to the Amazon.

habitat

Humid to semiarid forest, open woodland, clearings, and plantations (0–3,940 ft [0–1,200 m]).

behavior

Pair territorial and sedentary; generally found perching stolidly on high open branches, but otherwise inconspicuous.

feeding ecology and diet

Hunts at all levels, from ant swarms to upper canopy, preying on large insects and small vertebrates; some vegetable matter.

reproductive biology

Nests excavated by both pair members in arboreal termitaries, usually 40–50 ft (12–15 m) up (occasionally 10–60 ft [3–18 m]). Holes in the ground or in trees are also reported.

conservation status

Not threatened: scarce in Central America, widespread and often fairly numerous in South America.

significance to humans

None known.

Collared puffbird

Bucco capensis

taxonomy

Bucco capensis Linnaeus, 1766, Cape of Good Hope; error = the Guianas. Monotypic.

other common names

French: Tamatia à collier; German: Halsband-faulvogel; Spanish: Buco Musiú.

physical characteristics

7.5 in (19 cm), 1.6–2.2 oz (46–62 g). Dumpy, with large head and short tail. Sides of face bright orange; rest of upperparts rufous, finely barred darker. Complete black collar forms band across chest, bordered buffy on nape. Underparts white, grading to rich buffy on lower flanks. Bill robust and orange; eye orange.

distribution

Widespread in Amazon basin from eastern Ecuador and southeastern Colombia; east to southern Venezuela, the Guianas and northern Brazil; south to southeastern Peru and northern Mato Grosso.

habitat

Lower to mid strata of tall humid forest, also dry hilly country, bamboo bordering rivers, and varzea; 0–5,580 ft (0–1,700 m).

behavior

Still-hunts from horizontal perches; inconspicuous and tame. Distinctive vocalization given mainly before dawn.

feeding ecology and diet

Large insects (beetles, orthopterans, cicadas) and small vertebrates (lizards, snakes, frogs) taken from ground or foliage.

reproductive biology

Excavates nests in arboreal termitaria.

conservation status

Not threatened. Uncommon (or at least infrequently observed) but widespread, occurring in several protected areas.

significance to humans

None known.

White-eared puffbird

Nystalus chacuru

taxonomy

Bucco chacuru Vieillot, 1816, Paraguay. Two subspecies recognized.

other common names

French: Tamatia chacuru; German: Weißohr-faulvogel; Spanish: Buco Chacurú.

physical characteristics

8.3–8.7 in (21–22 cm); 1.7–2.3 oz (48–64 g). Upperparts brown, finely spotted and barred paler. Large pale ear-covert spot bordered below by blackish patch extending toward nape; white on forehead extending to narrow pale coronal stripe. Underparts ochraceous. Large bill reddish.

distribution

N. c. uncirostris: eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, and extreme western Brazil; N. c. chacuru: northeastern, eastern, and southern Brazil; eastern Paraguay; and northeastern Argentina.

habitat

Tropical dry forest, clearings and pastures, open woodland, savanna with scattered trees, even suburban areas where suitably wooded.

behavior

Still-hunts from perches (including posts and wires) between ground level and upper canopy.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats mainly arthropods caught aerially or on the ground, but occasionally takes small vertebrates (lizards).

reproductive biology

Nests at the ends of cavities excavated in level ground or banks; 2–4 eggs are laid.

conservation status

Not threatened. A common bird in much of southeastern and central Brazil. Although less common elsewhere, the species is nevertheless secure, especially because it is favored by deforestation.

significance to humans

None known.

White-whiskered puffbird

Malacoptila panamensis

taxonomy

Malacoptila panamensis Lafresnaye, 1847, Panama. Four sub-species recognized.

other common names

French: Tamatia de Lafresnaye; German: Weißzügel-faulvogel; Spanish: Buco Barbón.

physical characteristics

7.1–8.3 in (18–21 cm); 1.2–1.6 oz (33–46 g). Male mainly rufous, with white 'whiskers'; belly and flanks streaked blackish and white. Female similar, but duller brown on head and upperparts. Bill dark with basal two-thirds of lower mandible yellow; eyes red.

distribution

M. p. inornata: southeastern Mexico to western Panama; M. p. panamensis: southwestern Costa Rica to northwestern Colombia; M. p. magdalenae: west-central Colombia. M. p. poliopis: southwestern Colombia and western Ecuador.

habitat

Occurs in lower strata of primary and secondary humid forest and adjacent shady pastures; often perches by small openings such as trails.

behavior

Sedentary on year-round pair territories. Perches immobile and inconspicuous for long periods.

feeding ecology and diet

Still-hunts from horizontal perches, consuming large arthropods, especially grasshoppers; small reptiles and amphibians are also taken. Sometimes attends ant swarms or mixed-species flocks.

reproductive biology

Nest burrows are dug in level or sloping ground, or in arboreal termitaries; occasionally uses tree holes. Same hole can be used in successive breeding attempts. Two to three eggs are laid; incubation period unknown but fledging period is about 20 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Although rare in the northern portion of its range, it is common in southern Costa Rica and parts of western Colombia and Ecuador.

significance to humans

None known.

Lanceolated monklet

Micromonacha lanceolata

taxonomy

Bucco lanceolata Deville, 1849, Pampa del Sacramento, upper Ucayali River, Peru. Monotypic.

other common names

French: Barbacou lanceolé; German: Streifen-faulvogel; Spanish: Monjita Lanceolata.

physical characteristics

5.1–5.9 in (13–15 cm); 0.67–0.78 oz (19–22 g). Warm brown upperparts, scaled buffy. Whitish nasal tufts and chin feathers,

white loral patch (bordered black) extending across forehead. White underparts heavily streaked black, except for central belly; undertail coverts buffy. Bill black and iris brown.

distribution

Western Costa Rica, west-central Panama; also from southwestern Colombia to western Ecuador and west-central Colombia to northern Bolivia.

habitat

At all strata (but usually low down) and most often at borders of primary and secondary humid forest at 980–6,890 ft (300–2,100 m).

behavior

Principally solitary, although pairs are probably sedentary and territorial. Usually found sitting unobtrusively at forest edges or sometimes accompanying mixed-species flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Hunts insects from perches and is known to eat berries, at least seasonally.

reproductive biology

Nest is placed at end of a 16-in (40-cm) tunnel into a bank. Clutch contains two eggs; estimated incubation period 15 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Nowhere common, but widespread and thought to be secure.

significance to humans

None known.

Rufous-capped nunlet

Nonnula ruficapilla

taxonomy

Lypornix ruficapilla Tschudi, 1844, Peru. Four subspecies currently recognized.

other common names

French: Barbacou à couronne rousse; German: Grauwangenfaulvogel; Spanish: Monjita coronada.

physical characteristics

5.3–5.5 in (13.5–14 cm); 0.49–0.78 oz (14–22 g). Small with fine bill. Chestnut crown; face, nape, and sides of breast gray. Upperparts brown, more rufous on underparts with whitish belly.

distribution

N. r. rufipectus: northeastern Peru; N. r. ruficapilla: eastern Peru and western Brazil south of the Amazon; N. r. nattereri: northern Brazil, Mato Grosso, and northern Bolivia; N. r. inundata: eastern Pará, Brazil.

habitat

Mid-levels and undergrowth in humid forest edges, secondary forest, streamside forest, and igapó. In most of range associated with either bamboo or riverine regrowth.

behavior

Singles (or quite often pairs together) usually found sitting quietly in low vegetation where they sally for food.

feeding ecology and diet

Apparently exclusively insectivorous.

reproductive biology

No information. Other members of genus reported to nest in holes in banks or trees.

conservation status

Not threatened. The species seems fairly common in suitable habitat.

significance to humans

None known.

Black-fronted nunbird

Monasa nigrifrons

taxonomy

Bucco nigrifrons Spix, 1824, Rio Solimões, Brazil. Two sub-species recognized.

other common names

French: Barbacou unicolore; German: Schwarzstirntrappist; Spanish: Manja Unicolor.

physical characteristics

10.2–11.4 in (26–29 cm); 2.4–3.5 oz (68–98 g). Relatively slender and long tailed for a puffbird, entirely sooty black, darker around bill and paler ventrally. Bill bright red and legs black.

distribution

M. n. nigrifrons: southeastern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, much of Amazonian Brazil; M. n. canescens: eastern Bolivia.

habitat

Strong affinity to tall forest or regrowth on lakesides, riversides, and floodplains; also igapó and varzea, but generally absent from terra-firme forest.

behavior

Group territorial, up to six individuals constantly foraging together noisily, often conspicuous in mixed-species foraging flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Groups perch from lower strata to subcanopy, primarily taking insect prey (Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera) in flight, but regularly from ground or foliage. Also reported catching small lizards, and following army ant swarms and primate troops to feed on flushed prey.

reproductive biology

Lays about 3 eggs in nest burrows dug into level or slightly sloping ground. Incubation and fledging periods unknown. Presumed to be a cooperative breeder as groups visit nest area.

conservation status

Not threatened. A common bird throughout most of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Swallow-winged puffbird

Chelidoptera tenebrosa

taxonomy

Cuculus tenebrosus Pallas, 1782, Surinam. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Swallow wing; French: Barbacou à croupion blanc; German: Schwalben-faulvogel; Spanish: Buco Golondrina.

physical characteristics

5.5–5.9 in (14–15 cm); 1.1–1.5 oz (30–41.5 g). Quite small with relatively pointed wings. Mostly sooty black, with large white area on lower back, and chestnut on lower underparts. Bill short and black.

distribution

C. t. pallida: northwest Venezuela; C. t. tenebrosa: Venezuela (except northwest), eastern Colombia and the Guianas south to eastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Amazonian Brazil, and northern Bolivia; C. t. brasiliensis: coastal southeastern Brazil.

habitat

Recorded in wide variety of mostly open habitats 0–5,740 ft [0–1,750 m]), but prefers open sandy areas with scattered trees and bushes near forest.

behavior

Spends most time in pairs or small groups, perched high up in bare branches of emergent trees or other vantage points, from which it flies to catch prey. It can stay aloft for prolonged periods, leisurely circling, stalling, then swooping after passing prey before gliding to a perch. In flight it vaguely resembles a martin (Hirundinidae) or, more closely, a wood swallow (Artamidae).

feeding ecology and diet

Diet is entirely composed of bees, wasps, flying ants (Hymenoptera), alate termites (Isoptera), and other insects caught and consumed in flight.

reproductive biology

One to two eggs laid in cavity at end of burrow dug into level sand or earth banks, frequently beside rivers. Incubation and nestling periods undocumented.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common and conspicuous throughout much of range, and favored by moderate deforestation.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 7, Jacamars to Woodpeckers. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 2002.

Sclater, P. L. A Monograph of the Jacamars and Puffbirds, London: R. H. Porter, 1882.

Joseph Andrew Tobias, PhD