Food

Historically food has been an important symbol reflecting the social and spiritual life of societies. The prevalence of food as a symbol of religious life has much to do with whether food is scarce or abundant for a given society. The Old Testament chronicles the wanderings of nomadic societies, which eventually find a homeland. Throughout the Old Testament food is generally a scarce resource, and consequently there is both symbolic and practical value placed on key foods that sustain life, such as water and bread and olive oil.

The scarcity of food and water creates a particular appreciation for the nature of the feast, which produced bonding and unity among peoples that were sometimes at odds with one another. Norms of sharing—which sustains life—were important, and the rule of hospitality is an important part of the Judeo-Christian tradition. In societies where there is an abundance of food, however, its symbolism changes greatly. While America in the twentieth century was not without periods of economic depression and food shortages, for the most part the last half of the century was typified by food abundance. In fact, the United States consumes per capita many times the amount of food consumed by most other countries of the world.

Developments in agricultural technology play an important role in shaping the character of a society. Nomadic societies were very equalitarian: almost all property was communal. As societies began to engage in domestic agriculture, there was an increase in the diversity of occupations and in economic inequality. Horticultural societies had a greater tendency to engage in wars. Transitions to industrial and postindustrial society have profoundly changed the way in which societies organize themselves (Lenski).

American society underwent profound changes during the twentieth century. The nature of all social institutions changed substantially over its last half: the family, education, the economy, and politics. These changes have had an impact on the way in which religion and religious beliefs are understood in America and have affected the relationship between food and culture.

Family

At the turn of the century America was primarily an agricultural society in which increasing urbanization was evident. Urbanization was viewed as problematic by many, aggravating what were perceived as the social ills of poverty, crime, and deviance. Early in the century the ideal typical family was the nuclear family, with extended family living nearby. Meals were the mainstay that coordinated family life and provided a break from the hard labor required to make a living. The norm of three square meals a day was almost an eleventh commandment. The second half of the century saw major changes in family life, eating habits, and consequently the role of food in society. Changing lifestyles, especially among middle-class Americans, led to an increase in dining out and to the flourishing of fast-food chains and their upscale equivalents. The advent of the microwave oven in the home contributed to an increased dependence on processed and ready-to-eat foods. Family schedules became more individualized, and the typical family dinner, where all gather together with attendant religious rituals, tended to give way to the fast-paced personal schedule of each family member. For many, family dining tends to be reserved for holidays and special occasions. While food continues to mark birthdays, weddings, and major cultural festivals, its specific religious significance has diminished. One might speak of the McDonaldization of society: The food system has become the exemplar of modern society's emphasis upon calculability, predictability, efficiency, and control, which stand in contrast to the religious emphasis upon the spiritual dimension of breaking bread together around a common table.

Hunger

America seems to rediscover hunger every twenty to thirty years. Each historical response of the society resulted in a slightly different moral and religious response to the issue (Poppendieck). All religious traditions reflect concern for the care and feeding of the poor. Since the early 1980s religious concerns about feeding the poor have found expression in increasing numbers of food pantries and soup kitchens staffed by volunteers. On an international scale religious concern over world hunger and famine has been reflected in efforts to highlight issues of sustainable agriculture in which people feel secure regarding the availability of food that is safe, nutritious, and equitably distributed (Tansey and Worsley). International groups emerging from theological concerns, such as Oxfam and Bread for the World, work to increase public awareness of food issues and to affect the public policy of nation-states.

Health and Nutrition

Since the 1960s there has been increasing awareness of the relationship between food and health. As with C. W. Post, Sylvester Graham, and John Harvey Kellogg in the nineteenth century, the concern over proper healthy eating has moral and religious connotations. Dieting programs and a group of businesses focused on nutritional supplements and health concerns have developed into a major industry. Several writers have suggested that food, rather than sex, has become the center of a new contemporary morality in which people feel more guilty about their eating habits than their sexual indiscretions (Iggers). These changing cultural norms, reflecting in part the new position of women in contemporary society, have resulted in a high incidence of anorexia and bulimia, especially among affluent females.

Current Trends

The connection between food and religion is typified by diverse and sometimes conflicting emphases in contemporary society. Food in American society, as well as in other first-world countries, has a complex relationship to the way in which individuals and groups view themselves. In the last half of the twentieth century, social currents arose that connected food, religion, and self-understanding. Across America communities sponsored differing forms of ethnic food festivals that linked food, religion, and ethnic traditions. Kwanza, an emergent celebration that affirms African-American culture, links food, family, and religion. The increasing recognition of Cinco de Mayo has similar symbolic relevance for many Hispanic Americans.

The globalization of the food system will increasingly engender religious and ethical issues regarding food. The impact of biotechnology on what people eat and concerns over a food system facing demands from an increasing population and declining amounts of farmable land will become more prominent issues. There was recognition at the beginning of the twenty-first century that the experiences of hunger and malnutrition in rich and poor countries alike have more to do with the politics of distribution than with food availability. Food continues to be more than just what people eat; it is an expression of who and what they are.

See alsoCommunion; Ecospirituality; Globalization; Kosher; Vegetarianism.

Bibliography

Iggers, Jeremy. The Garden of Eating: Food, Sex, and theHunger for Meaning. 1996.

Lenski, Gerhard, and Jean Lenski. Human Societies: AnIntroduction to Macrosociology. 1974.

Levenstein, Harvey. The Paradox of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in America. 1993.

Poppendieck, Janet. Sweet Charity? Emergency Food andthe End of Entitlement. 1998.

Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society. 1995.

Tansey, Geoff, and Tony Worsley. The Food System: AGuide. 1996.

Visser, Margaret. Much Depends on Dinner: The Extraordinary History and Mythology, Allure and Obsessions, Perils and Taboos of an Ordinary Meal. 1988.

C. Lincoln Johnson