China

POPULATION 1,284,303,705
CHINESE POPULAR RELIGIONIST 29.2 percent
BUDDHIST 8 percent
ATHEIST 8.1 percent
CHRISTIAN 6.5 percent
TRIBAL RELIGIONIST 4.3 percent
MUSLIM 1.7 percent
NONRELIGIONIST 42.1 percent
OTHER less than 0.1 percent

Country Overview

INTRODUCTION

China is the world's most populous country and the fourth largest in area. About four-fifths of its population are peasants; one-fifth works in industry and trade in urban centers. The Han Chinese are the dominant ethnic group (92 percent), but there are more than 50 ethnic minorities (over 100 million people) in China, most of whom live in regions bordering other countries.

The country's largest faith is Chinese popular religion, a syncretic belief system that originated in the second millennium b.c.e. and that later borrowed elements of both religious (not philosophical) Taoism (Daoism) and Confucianism. Taoism, a Chinese religion founded in the second century c.e., incorporated Buddhist deities into its pantheon, and many Taoist gods and ritual practices were then amalgamated into popular religion. Today Taoism and Chinese popular religion overlap symbiotically. Taoist priests (and sometimes Buddhist monks and nuns or even Confucian ritual specialists) are hired to perform popular religious rituals.

Confucianism originated in China during the late sixth and early fifth centuries b.c.e. with the "Sage Master" philosopher Confucius. Although only a small percentage of Chinese still practice it exclusively as an ethical and ritual system, Confucianism remains a strong cultural force, and many of its beliefs and practices are widely recognized by followers of Chinese popular religion.

Buddhism was introduced into China in the first century c.e. by immigrants from Persia, Central Asia, and India; by the eighth century it was fully domesticated. In the mid-seventh century Christianity arrived from Syria. Muslim traders brought Islam from the Middle East and Central Asia to China in the late seventh century. In the mid-ninth century a Taoist Tang emperor heavily persecuted foreign religions. Buddhism went underground, and Christianity died out; indigenous Islamic converts were too few to warrant imperial attention. At the end of the thirteenth century Catholicism appeared in China. At about the same time, a significant number of indigenous people began to be converted to Islam. Western Protestant missionaries were active in China from the beginning of the nineteenth century until the Communist People's Republic of China (PRC) expelled them in 1952.

Since the death of Mao Tse-tung, China's leader from 1949 to 1976, Christianity has been the country's fastest-growing religion. Strong revivals have occurred in the port cities along the eastern seaboard, as well as in cities and towns dotting the interior provinces. A parallel, nationwide resurgence of Pure Land Buddhism has also taken place. Meditative Chan (Zen in Japanese) Buddhism is practiced by Buddhist monks in monasteries as well as by philosophically minded lay intellectuals.

RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

The 1954 constitution of the PRC and each constitution promulgated thereafter all guarantee freedom of religion. Technically, however, the government recognizes and sanctions only five faiths—Buddhism, Taoism (Taoism stands for religious Taoism in this essay), Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism—and religious activities are limited to state-approved facilities. Popular religion and related heterodox cults do not receive constitutional protection, but popular religionists enjoy a high degree of freedom, partly because their religious practices are based in Taoism and Buddhism and appear legal and partly because popular religionists form such a large group. Their base of more than 360 million adherents makes the government leery of losing their support.

The degree of religious tolerance since 1949 has fluctuated according to the intensity of radicalism in Chinese Communist Party (CCP) politics. During Mao's Cultural Revolution (1966–76), all religions were harshly suppressed, and religious activities went underground. Nearly all churches and temples were closed or appropriated for secular uses. In the post-Mao era religious tolerance has greatly increased, though it does not yet conform to international standards.

In 1999 the government passed an anticult (fan xiejiao) law as part of a crackdown on Falungong, a popular group that promotes qigong (breath cultivation) combined with Buddhist-style meditation and that has a far larger membership than any other social organization or dissident movement in China. Since 2001 the government has expanded the crackdown to include certain unregistered Christian "house churches," involving millions of Protestants whose gatherings are technically illegal.

Major Religions

CHINESE POPULAR RELIGION

BUDDHISM

CHRISTIANITY

CHINESE POPULAR RELIGION

DATE OF ORIGIN c. second millennium b.c.e.
NUMBER OF FOLLOWERS 366 million

HISTORY

Chinese popular, or folk, religion probably originated during the Shang period (c.1766–1122 b.c.e.). Throughout its existence it has been in flux, formed through a gradual process of incorporating newer, harmonious ideas into its ancient pristine traditions over three thousand years. During premodern times these ideas were essentially taken from Confucian ethics, Taoism, and folk Buddhism, but the religion's absorption of different forms of belief and practice is ongoing even into the contemporary period. Popular religion is followed by people of all social groups, especially in the observance of major festivals. Since the 1980s, as a legacy of the Cultural Revolution, Chairman Mao has emerged as a cult figure, his image used not only as an emblem of protection in vehicles but also as an object of worship in certain shrines established by local peasants in northern China. After their harsh repression by Mao, popular religious activities have resurfaced into public life and are booming. Devotion to local deities thrives, and the sale of objects for ritual use—incense sticks, paper money, and elaborate, miniature imitations of consumer commodities (such as furniture, for ancestors to use in the next world)—is big business. Mediums are common in rural areas and suburban centers.

At the national level Chinese popular religion is a diffused system, but it is highly organized in local communities. Because it performs the vital social function of promoting community identity and solidarity, popular religion has also been called "local communal religion." Adherents believe the universe is divided into three spheres—Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld—all governed by a supreme ruler, the Jade Emperor (Yuhuang Dadi). The counterpart of the earthly emperor, he presides in Heaven over a bureaucracy staffed by all sorts of god-officials (shi) and gods (shen). Among these are the King of the Underworld (Yanluowang) and a host of other functionaries stationed on earth, including the city god (Chenghuang), comparable to a human magistrate, and the local earth god (Tudi Gong), like a local constable. The kitchen god (Zao Jun), whose picture hangs above a peasant family's kitchen stove, is the resident agent of the Jade Emperor, watching over the daily conduct of the family members.

Under the officials are the common ghosts (gui)—the souls of the dead, who are confined in the Under-world. Souls of cultural heroes (for example, the mythic Yellow Emperor and Confucius) may have had their status changed from ghosts to gods (or saints) after their deification (mostly by the imperial government). Ancestors (zu) are those lucky ghosts whose living descendants sustain them through sacrifices. Ghosts who died without offspring are like the homeless and beggars in human society, and they are prone to make trouble for their relatives and fellow villagers; they may be propitiated, however, by community offerings at an annual festival. Notable female deities, including the Old Mother (Laomu, counterpart of the Buddhist goddess of mercy, Guanyi), are worshiped nationally; and Mazu (Heavenly Empress), the deified spirit of a virtuous unmarried woman, is worshiped widely in the southeastern provinces.

A bewildering array of popular religious groups, commonly called "secret societies," are characterized by secret hierarchical organizational structures and are empowered by occult folk Buddhist and religious Taoist beliefs. In Chinese history these groups adopted different names, such as "society" (hui), "brotherhood" (men), "way" (tao, or dao), and "sect" (jiao). Major examples include the Triad (Sanhe Hui), the Universal Salvation Society (Puji Hui; named after its founder, Pu Ji), the Hong Brotherhood (Hong Men), the Unity Way (Yiguan Dao), the Nine Functions Way (Jiugong Dao), and the White Lotus Sect (Bailian Jiao).

Often linked with millenarianism (the belief in a coming messianic kingdom), secret societies may trace their origins to as far back as the third century b.c.e. Some groups became politically subversive, playing major roles in popular revolts (for example, the White Lotus Rebellion at the turn of the nineteenth century) against imperial governments. The Red Spear Society (Hongqiang Hui) sprang up in the 1930s in northern China; these were local groups formed during the Japanese occupation to defend villages against roaming bandits. In 1953 the Communist government launched a massive suppression campaign against Hui-Dao-Men ("Societies-Ways-Brotherhoods"), all but eradicating them from the Chinese mainland. Some of their offshoots have reappeared, reintroduced by Chinese adherents who live overseas.

EARLY AND MODERN LEADERS

Only secret societies that gave birth to political movements have produced national leaders. Liu Song and Zhu Hongdeng (Zhu Fengming) were pioneers of a popular movement that led to the 1796–1804 White Lotus Rebellion. Chang Loxing led the Nien (an offshoot of the White Lotus Sect) Rebellion (c. 1853–68) against the Manchu (Qing) regime. Under a quasi-Christian ideology, Hong Xiuquan (1814–64) led the anti-Qing Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), the longest and most devastating period of civil unrest in Chinese history, nearly toppling the Qing imperial dynasty. Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan, 1866–1925), a member of the Hong Brotherhood, led the anti-Qing revolution, resulting in its final demise in 1911. Li Hongzhi (born in 1953), a former trumpet player from northeastern China, is the founder of the Falungong movement.

MAJOR THEOLOGIANS AND AUTHORS

The deities in popular religion are not supported by any systematic study or documentation.

HOUSES OF WORSHIP AND HOLY PLACES

For more than two thousand years the emperor (Son of Heaven) alone could officially offer sacrifices to Heaven at special altars in the imperial capital. The demise of the imperial system in 1911 ended these rituals. Thousands of household shrines and altars remain. Many of China's villages and towns have local temples, more numerous in the south and southeast. Sacred sites venerated by both popular religionists and religious Taoists outside population centers include the five (Taoist) sacred mountain peaks (wuyue)—Taishan (shan means "mountain" or "peak") in eastern Shandong, Bei Hengshan (bei means "north") in northern Shanxi, Nan Hengshan (nan means "south") in southern Hunan, Huashan in western Shanxi, and Songshan in central Henan—as well as major Buddhist sacred sites and renowned Taoist temples.

WHAT IS SACRED?

Certain individual cults in popular religion are dedicated to sacred natural beings or objects, such as the god of insects, the god of horses, the tree god, the dragon king, and various astral gods (such as the Purple Emperor Star, ziweixin).

HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

The aspect of popular religion shared by all Chinese is the annual cycle of festivals, which follows the lunar calendar. The Chinese New Year (Xinnian, or Chunjie: Festival of the Spring) is the most important. Family members return home from distant workplaces, and families hold a banquet in honor of the ancestors. Held on the third day of the third lunar month, the Qingming (Pure and Clear) Festival, also known as Hanshi jie(Day of Eating Things Cold), is the second most important opportunity to honor ancestors; family members perform the traditional sacrificial rituals of cleaning the graves (saomu) and offering food. The PRC government's forcible implementation of cremation has largely eliminated private graveyards and led to a simplification of the rituals. People in southern Anhui now buy Qingming diaozi (three-foot-long bamboo sticks with multicolored paper strips tied to the tip) from supply stores and erect them around family tombstones in public cemeteries. In metropolitan Shanghai families place fresh flowers around gravestones; they burn incense, offer cooked foods and wine, and light cigarettes for the deceased to enjoy.

The Ghost Festival (Guijie), which coincides with the Buddhist Ullambhana (Deliverance) Festival, is held on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. Hell is said to open its gates to release the spirits of the dead. People in suburban Shanghai entertain their ancestors with a lavish dinner and the burning of mock gold and silver ingots. They also place food offerings and burn incense outside the front door for roaming ghosts (those who died without offspring). The Hanyi jie (Sending Off the Winter Cloths), which has been revived in the north around Hebei, is celebrated on the first day of the tenth lunar month (November on the Gregorian calendar). Popular religion adherents offer mock (paper) clothing and abundant food supplies to the ancestors in preparation for winter.

On the twenty-third day of the twelfth month, it is the prescribed duty of the kitchen god to present his annual report to the Jade Emperor on the conduct of each family member. On the evening of his ascent to Heaven, family members offer him candies (tanggua: round, sticky candy balls shaped like miniature tomatoes) to sweeten his lips, so that he may say only good things about them.

MODE OF DRESS

Lay adherents of popular religion have no dress code. When invited to preside over folk rituals, Buddhist monks wear their robes, and Taoist specialists wear standardized ritual vestments (Taoists are differentiated by the color of their headband; hence the Redhead and Blackhead Taoists). The Red Spear Society requires its practitioners to wear a red apron when they communicate with their patron deities in the sanctuary.

DIETARY PRACTICES

Dietary restrictions are required mostly among members of the secret societies. The Nine Functions Way (Jiugong Dao) forbids members to eat meat, garlic, or onions; to drink wine; and to smoke tobacco. The Unity Way (Yiguan Dao) forbids the use of alcohol.

RITUALS

The rituals of Chinese popular religion allow humans to interact with the spirit world. Most communal rituals are performed by Taoist priests of the Zhengyi sect (Celestial Masters Taoism). Buddhist ritual traditions are used during requiem services and Confucian rituals for rites involving animal sacrifice. Taoist priests or ritual masters are invited to perform rites in the temples on the birthdays of the local gods. They also preside over one of the most elaborate public rituals performed for a community, the jiao ritual of cosmic renewal. A large-scale festival involving scores of villages surrounding the central temple of the local god, the ritual may last for many days. Mass processions, sacrificial offerings, and ritual theatrical performances are staged to entertain the gods. On the third day of the festival, the Taoist priests emerge from the temple to present offerings to the superior gods in Heaven. On a different day they perform the feast for the universal deliverance of hungry ghosts (pudu, which means "all-ferried over"), allowing them to go to a better place in the Underworld or in Heaven.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Since the Han period (206 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) birth, maturation, marriage, and burial have been regulated by sumptuary (extravagance-prevention) and ritual laws of the Confucian tradition. Today a pregnant woman no longer makes offerings to the spirit (taishen) believed to protect the fetus, but rites related to the recovery of the mother's health are maintained: She must rest for one month after delivery, eating special foods rich in protein and vitamins. The old rite of "capping," in which the father gave his son both a new name and a square-cornered cap, thus marking his entrance into mature manhood, was dropped long ago. Weddings are largely devoid of religious content and involve no religious functionaries. In cities businesses known as Liyigongsi (Companies of Rituals and Ceremonials) arrange for the wedding garments, transportation, and the other aspects of the event.

By contrast, the traditional funeral rite has been enhanced. Layers of white tissue paper and talismans are put over the corpse in its coffin. A Taoist priest is usually invited to perform the funeral rites at a funeral parlor. At the graveside the bereaved family ceremonially burns a paper house completely furnished with miniature lamps, stoves, refrigerators, a telephone, and reams of paper money for the bank account of the dead in hell. After the cremation, bone-ash caskets (guhuixia) are either stored in the village Spirits' Hall (lingtang; in northern China) or buried in a public cemetery (in southern China), to be visited annually during the Qingming festival.

MEMBERSHIP

The participation of villagers in local religious activities is voluntary. Secret societies require an elaborate initiation procedure, including an oath of secrecy, and members' conduct is regulated by secret rules, including the ritual use of symbols and gestures as a means of communication. During times of famine or political unrest, these groups drew their members mostly from the lower stratum of the society—the poor and the unemployed.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Chinese popular religion has no systematic teachings regarding such social issues as poverty, education, and human rights. Temple networks connecting local communities in a large area function as informal local governments, collecting contributions from adherents in order to provide social services to the needy.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

Chinese popular religion is centered on the family and the local community. Marriage is seen as uniting two families rather than two individuals. Sometimes two families hire a ritual specialist to conduct a spirit marriage (minhun)—a wedding ceremony uniting the ghost of the deceased daughter of one family with the ghost of the deceased son of the other. The PRC government's strict enforcement of its law permitting only one child per couple has undermined the value popular religion places on having more children.

POLITICAL IMPACT

Throughout Chinese history perennial tensions existed between the imperial government and certain Buddhist-inspired popular secret societies, as these groups have at times inspired popular revolts. The White Lotus Sect led an eight-year mass rebellion (1796–1804) protesting political corruption and economic hardship. The Boxers, a secret religious sect whose members practiced a form of martial arts and staged occult rituals worshiping the gods, started a massive anti-foreign and anti-Christian movement in 1900. Ravaging China's northern provinces for two years, the Boxer Rebellion caused the martyrdom of hundreds of Western missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians.

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES

In keeping with its syncretic nature, Chinese popular religion stresses compromise and harmony in its beliefs and practices; hardly any issue causes controversy among adherents. In contrast to the divisiveness the cult of Mary has brought about within Christianity in the West, Chinese popular religion embraces and honors many prominent female deities. There are cults of Mazu and the Niangniang (a group of goddesses who grant children and protect the eyes). Women's ministry is accepted by all: Buddhist nuns may be invited to officiate at ritual events, and spirit mediums are almost exclusively female.

CULTURAL IMPACT

Literature inspired by Chinese popular religion includes hagiographies (idealized biographies of saints) and ghost revenge stories. The sixteenth-century classic Fengshen Yanyi (The Investiture of the Gods) reflects popular religion's polytheistic ideology. Popular communal festivals and rituals have led to the creation of ritual dances, processions, and theatrical arts as corollaries to communal worship.

BUDDHISM

DATE OF ORIGIN c. 68 c.e.
NUMBER OF FOLLOWERS 107.9 million

HISTORY

Immigrants brought Buddhism to China during the first century c.e. in three distinct forms: Southern Buddhism (Theravada), Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism or Tantric Buddhism), and Han Buddhism. Theravada is practiced only among the Dai, a small ethnic group that inhabits the border region of southern Yunnan. Tibetan Buddhism, which belongs to the Mahayana school, is the religion of the Tibetans and some of China's minority nationals, such as the Mongols in the north and the Manchus in the northeast. Strictly speaking, only Han Buddhism, also of the Mahayana school, may be called "Chinese Buddhism," because it is subscribed to by the Han Chinese, who constitute over 90 percent of China's Buddhist population. Historically the two most popular forms of Chinese Buddhism were the Pure Land Sect (Jintu zong), which flourished mainly in China's rural communities, and Chan Buddhism, which found adherents among the educated in cities and towns. Pure Land Buddhism asserts that people can be saved into the "Western Paradise" through faith in the Amitabha Buddha (O Mi To Fo in Chinese; Bodhisattva of Boundless Light and Life) and repetitious invocation of his name. Chan Buddhists believe that through meditation practice, they may experience inner enlightenment, achieving Buddhahood in this life.

Buddhism became woven into the fiber of Chinese sociopolitical life by the middle of the eighth century. Its growth and influence was abruptly arrested in the middle of the ninth century by devastating political suppression. Though "folk Buddhism" remained a vital part of rural popular culture, Buddhism as a high ideology forever lost its prestige among China's educated ruling elite. In the era of the Chinese Republic (1912–49), Buddhism experienced a small revival led by certain "monk-politicians," who helped establish the nationwide Chinese Buddhist Association (CBA; Zhongguo Fojiao Xiehui) to carry out reforms within the Buddhist sangha (Buddhist community) and to protect monastic properties from government encroachment.

When the CCP seized power on the mainland in 1949, the CBA's headquarters moved to Taiwan with the Nationalist government. The founding of the PRC fundamentally changed the socioeconomic status of Buddhism in China. The land reform law of 1950 officially deprived the large Buddhist monasteries of their land-owning rights. The state set up a new Chinese Buddhist Association (also abbreviated as CBA) in 1952 as a quasi-religious organization under the supervision of the CCP party apparatus. After 1959 the CCP's forceful application of Marxism-Leninism to all aspects of intellectual life left no room for independent thinking. During the violent years of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), Buddhist temples were severely damaged, and monks and nuns were forced to return to laity in order to participate in productive labor. The post-Mao government considerably liberalized China's religious policies. Both Tibetan and Han Buddhism flourish in China today. Though various Han sects existed before the founding of the PRC, only the Pure Land sect remains popular, and it has experienced a strong revival throughout China, especially in rural communities. Chan Buddhism is practiced in Chan monasteries and by an undetermined number of intellectuals.

EARLY AND MODERN LEADERS

Dao Cho (562–645) and Shan Dao (613–81) founded the Pure Land sect of Chinese Buddhism. Xuan Zhuang (600–64), a pioneering Chinese Buddhist pilgrim-scholar, translated the Buddhist scriptures of the School of Consciousness Only (Weishi) from Sanskrit into Chinese. Master Jian Zhen (Ganjin in Japanese; 688–763), a famous Chinese Buddhist missionary, founded the Japanese monastic Ritsu (Lü in Chinese) School in 753. The Sixth Patriarch Hui Neng (638–713) was an epic figure in Chan Buddhism. It was he who perfected the teaching of Chan.

The two leaders of the revival movement under the Chinese Republic were the progressive Abbot Taixu (Tai-hsü; 1889–1947) and the more conservative Abbot Yuanying (Yuan-ying; 1878–1953). They advocated purging Buddhism of "superstition"—getting rid of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas (Buddhas-to-be: beings who compassionately refrain from entering Nirvana in order to help others), which they considered "illusionary," and eliminating profit-making funerary rites—so that all Buddhists might find the "Western Paradise" in this world by rendering services in their local communities. They also led the founding of the CBA in 1929. During China's War of Resistance against Japan (1937–45), Monk Juzan (Chu-tsan; secular name: Pan Chutong; 1908–84), one of Taixu's prominent disciples, organized the Anti-Japan Association of Chinese Buddhists and founded the patriotic journal Lion's Roars (Shizihou). In 1950, thanks to his pro-CCP activism, Juzan was appointed editor-in-chief of Modern Buddhism (Xiandai foxue), a monthly magazine that serves as the mouthpiece of CCP's religious policy.

MAJOR THEOLOGIANS AND AUTHORS

The sida gaoseng (four eminent monks)—Zhu Hong (1535–1615), Zhen Ke (1542–1603), De Qing (1546–1623), and Zhi Xu (1599–1655)—arose in China in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. The four advocated creating a synthesized Buddhism from Pure Land Buddhism, Chan Buddhism, and Neo-Confucianism. Under their tutelage numerous intellectuals became jushi (lay devotees) and helped foster the rise of the new religious phenomenon known as jushi Buddhism. Yang Wenhui (1837–1911) was a pivotal figure in the jushi tradition. Among his disciples who became renowned jushi scholars were four of the famous late–Qing dynasty reformers: Tan Sitong (1865–98), Liang Qichao (1873–1929), Tang Yongtong (1893–1964), and Lü Zheng (1896–1989).

The famous jushi Zhao Puchu (1907–2000), president of the CBA from the 1980s until his death and author of Buddhism in China, advanced a doctrine of "this-worldly" Buddhist thought, calling on Chinese Buddhists to pay equal attention to agricultural work (work in "this world") and Chan meditative practice (nong Chan bingzhong). Ren Jiyu (born in 1916), a leading philosopher and director of the Institute for Research of World Religions at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, directed the monumental project Zhongguo Fojiaoshi (History of Chinese Buddhism), published in 1981.

HOUSES OF WORSHIP AND HOLY PLACES

Chinese Buddhist monks and nuns worship in temples or within the monastery of their residence. Lay devotees worship together at the Lay Association Hall (Jushi lin). Rank-and-file Buddhists set up family shrines or icons for worship and go to the temple only on festival days and for special purposes—for example, to ask a bodhisattva for healing. Among the most popular Buddhist worship centers in China are the various holy sites known as zuting (where certain patriarchs founded their sects).

Chinese Buddhists make pilgrimages to the sida mingshan (four famous mountains), each with devotion to a particular bodhisattva: Putuo Shan (shan means "mountain"), situated on an island in Eastern Zhejiang Province, is dedicated to Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara; goddess of compassion); Omei Shan in Sichuan is dedicated to Puxian (Samantabhadra, god of universal virtue); Wutai Shan in Shanxi is dedicated to Wenshu (Manjushri, god of great wit); and Jiuhua Shan in Anhwei is dedicated to Dizang (Kshitigarbha, god of specters). Song Shan—a mountain in Henan with a legendary Chan temple, Shaolin Si (si means "temple")—is famed for its tradition of spectacular martial arts. In southernmost China, on Hainan Island, the world's tallest statue of the goddess Guanyin was erected in 2003 (on the date Guanyin renounced her lay life) as part of the PRC's aggressive promotion of pilgrimage tourism.

WHAT IS SACRED?

Some mountains are sacred to Chinese Buddhists. Certain rocks and caves may also be venerated in Tibet and other Tantric Buddhist areas. Buddhist relics, such as the tooth relic housed in the Buddha's Tooth Pagoda (a 50-meter-high structure outside Beijing, restored in 1961), are considered sacred. The tooth is revered as a fawu (divine object) and looked upon by the worshipers as a kind of guanxiang, or medium of meditation.

HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

Buddhist festivals in China have been largely secularized and politicized. Their dates are determined by the lunar calendar. During the lunar month of Vesakha (generally in May), Chinese Buddhists hold the Yufojie (Bathing the Buddha Festival), celebrating the day the newborn Sakyamuni ("Sage of the Sakyans"; the historical Buddha) is said to have been bathed by water sent down by gods. On the nineteenth day of the second, sixth, and ninth months of the year, Chinese Buddhists celebrate Guanyin's birth, enlightenment, and death. The Yulanpen (Ullambhana; Festival of the Hungry Ghosts) takes place on the fifteenth day of the seventh month (in August or September). At the full moon monks chant from Buddhist scripture for the hungry ghosts and put out food to feed them. Lay devotees also participate in the rites by burning large paper boats, helping "ferry across" hungry ghosts to a better world.

MODE OF DRESS

Monastic dress code prohibits the use of animal products and silk. The color and pattern of garments worn by Chinese Buddhists are determined by their social status within the Buddhist community.

There are three main categories of garment. The first is called changshan (an informal long gown worn for most monastic work). The second is called haiqing or changpao (a gown with much fuller sleeves than the first, hanging down about 18 inches from the wrist). It might be worn alone, but for important ritual events it is always worn under the jiasha (kasaya in Sanskrit), which is the third and most formal type of garment.

Most monastic garments are grey or black, but grey is perhaps the most widely worn. Novices, nuns, and lay devotees wear the 5-strip garment (wutiao i), so-called because it is made from 5 strips of cloth. Fully ordained monks may wear the 7-strip garment (qitiao i) in any shade of yellow to light brown. The temple abbot normally wears a 25-strip red robe (hongi). On major ritual occasions, such as ordinations, he puts on the Ten-Thousand-Buddha garment (qianfo i) (a robe magnificently embroidered with numerous Buddha figures). All monks' garments have the same "Y" neck—one side crosses over the other, as with a Western bathrobe, leaving the throat bare. All ordained monks and nuns shave their heads completely.

Xiangke (literally "incense-offerers"; occasional Buddhists), particularly those in the countryside, tend to wear conservative colors: gray, black, and dark blue. Lay devotees may also wear monks' robes, but they do not shave their heads.

DIETARY PRACTICES

Dietary habit in Chinese monasteries varies according to geography. In general, meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, vegetables of the onion family (including garlic and leeks), and all intoxicating beverages are forbidden or customarily avoided, as they are believed to stir up the sexual appetite. Typically the daily diet consists of rice, congee, bean curd, turnips, and mixed vegetables (lohan zhai, the most popular combination, consists of 18 different vegetables; 18 is the number of lohan, or enlightened ones who have crossed over to "the other shore" and received eternal salvation, in the Buddhist pantheon). On the first, eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-third days of each lunar month, the diet is supplemented by somewhat better ingredients, such as mushrooms, noodles, or Chinese vermicelli. Some lay devotees observe the same dietary restrictions as the clergy; others do so only on special occasions.

RITUALS

Buddhist rituals are performed both in monasteries and in the homes of the laity. When a layperson enters the sangha (Buddhist community), he goes through the rite of tonsure (tidu). Kneeling before an image of Maitreya (Milefo; the coming Buddha who will succeed the historical Buddha, or Sakyamuni), the candidate publicly renounces his lay life and his obligations in human relationships, including those to his parents, asking the master to shave his hair to symbolize this renunciation. After attaining the minimum age (usually 20), a novice becomes a monk through the rite of ordination (shoujie). The candidate takes a series of vows, after which "ordination scars" are burned into his scalp with moxa.

To become a lay devotee (jushi), a person must follow a three-step ritual: declaring faith in the Three Refuges (the Buddha, the dharma (law), and the sangha); taking the Five Vows (not to kill, steal, drink alcoholic beverages, lie, or commit sexual misconduct); and taking the Bodhisattva Vows (committing to follow the bodhisattva path in helping and saving all other creatures). Lay devotees attend worship services at the temple on special occasions and practice religious cultivation (xiuxing) at home, where they set up altars next to ancestral tablets for worshiping and offering incense to the Buddha image.

Increasingly popular, lay pilgrimage is a conspicuous aspect of contemporary Buddhist ritual. Tienzhu Shan in Hangzhou is one of the most visited cultic centers of the goddess Guanyin; the business that has grown up around servicing pilgrims epitomizes the secular character of contemporary lay pilgrimage in China.

RITES OF PASSAGE

The life cycle of a lay Buddhist in China is marked by a set of religious rites. Buddhist mothers usually bring newborn babies to the monastery so that the abbot can touch the baby's forehead, giving a blessing for longevity. During the Cultural Revolution the Mao cult became a quasi religion, and some Buddhist adherents also performed "revolutionary wedding rites" in front of a portrait of Chairman Mao. Tibetan Buddhists still practice symbolic "kidnapping" (of the bride from her parents) as a major part of the marriage rites. Since the 1980s memorial services have replaced the traditional Buddhist funeral rite of chaodu (which saved the dead from being punished in hell) in most areas of China. Most Han Buddhists are now cremated rather than buried, although a simplified form of the Buddhist funeral procession remains, with Chinese and Western bands playing traditional and modern dirges.

MEMBERSHIP

Proselytizing anywhere except within temples is illegal for Chinese Buddhists. Family influence has been a major factor in the growth of the Buddhist lay population. A lay devotee receives a formal certificate (jushi zheng, or guiyi zheng) after taking the Three Refuges and the Five Vows, confirming his jushi status and his membership in a Buddhist sangha. The over-whelming majority of lay Buddhists in China today, however, are xiangk (occasional Buddhists), whose affiliation with the sangha is often fluid and does not involve a membership ceremony, since they may worship other deities in popular religion as well.

Ordination is required to join a Buddhist monastery. The great shortage of Buddhist monks and nuns after the Cultural Revolution has been slowly alleviated since 1978 (two years after Mao's death, when the "reform" era began) by the restoration of Buddhist seminaries and academies, which had been in ruins.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

After 1949 the Communist government decided it must rectify "feudal" abnormalities and "injustices" embedded in the Chinese Buddhist clergy's monastic life. Monks and nuns were given civil rights (to vote and hold public office), but these rights obliged them to perform the civil duties other citizens had to fulfill, such as taking part in productive work, serving in the army, and actively participating in political campaigns and movements. Today lay Buddhists are required to serve in the army, but monks and nuns are not.

Neither the CBA nor any of its leaders may engage in social reform activities. Under the doctrine of "this-worldly" Buddhism, Chinese Buddhists are now actively engaged in various voluntary social services, including medicine, education, and environmental protection.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

In 1955 a group of young Shanghai monks called for a revision of the Vinaya (monastic regulations) with the hope of allowing marriage for monks and nuns. In support their request, they invoked the new marriage law of 1950, which aimed at abolishing the patriarchal and compulsory practices in the system of arranged marriages by parents. These monks compared the compulsory nature of enforced celibacy for Buddhist clerics to that of arranged marriages within the secular community. Xuyun (Hsü-yün; 1840–1959), an eminent Chan abbot and honorary president of the CBA, vetoed the request. While lay devotees can marry, he refuted, monks and nuns must remain celibate unless they give up their vocation and return to secular life (huansu). The new marriage law also allows lay Buddhists (like all Chinese citizens) to divorce.

POLITICAL IMPACT

Individual Buddhists have had little effect on politics in China, with the exception of the Dalai Lama, who has worked peacefully for Tibetan autonomy. The CBA's main function since its founding in 1952 has been to keep the Buddhist clerical ranks free from "counterrevolutionaries" and the laity from forming "subversive" heterodox sects. The government has also used the CBA internationally to conduct "people's diplomacy," fostering closer ties with neighboring Buddhist countries in South and Southeast Asia and Japan.

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES

From the early days of the PRC, Buddhist participation in politics has caused controversy between progressive and conservative Buddhist clergy. Conservatives distrust the new constitution, which allows monks and nuns to vote and hold public office. The progressives disagree, and they have had to reinterpret the Vinaya (monastic regulations) in order to justify killing Chinese "counterrevolutionaries" or foreign enemies during war.

Compulsory abortion has been a controversial issue among lay Buddhists since the post-Mao government widely enforced the "one child only" policy after 1978. Some regard the practice as killing life.

CULTURAL IMPACT

Historically Buddhism has profoundly influenced Chinese architecture, sculpture, paintings, literature, and musical traditions. Buddhist architecture introduced into China included temples, pagodas, and grottos (cave complexes hewn into cliff walls). Because dynasty emperors were often the most pious Buddhists, Buddhist temples gradually took on the design of imperial palaces, bearing little resemblance to their Indian counterparts. The most famous Buddhist temple is the Famen Si in Xi'an, Shaanxi. Notable examples of a pagoda and a grotto are the Liuhe Ta (Six Harmonies Pagoda) in Hangzhou, originally built in 971 c.e. and the Magao Grottos in Dunhuang City in the northwest, which contain Buddhist mural paintings and stucco sculptures.

Even after the founding of the PRC, Buddhist-inspired literature remained popular among Chinese readers, especially the sixteenth-century Xiyouji (Journey to the West; English translators sometimes use the title Monkey). This novel was Mao's favorite reading, and he promoted a revolutionary interpretation of the classic. Fanhua (a Buddhist painting style), fanbei (Buddhist music), and chanwu (Chan dance) are increasingly popular in China today.

CHRISTIANITY

DATE OF ORIGIN 635 c.e.
NUMBER OF FOLLOWERS 91.2 million

HISTORY

Christian Nestorianism (Jingjiao, meaning "Luminous Faith") reached China from Syria in the mid-seventh century, died out after massive religious persecution in the mid-ninth century, and resurfaced in 1260. Franciscan missionaries commissioned by the pope arrived in China at the end of the thirteenth century. In both cases Christianity was accepted mostly by non-Han ethnic minorities, and it failed to survive the end of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 c.e.). Only at the end of the sixteenth century did the Christian faith become domesticated among the Han people, through Jesuit missionaries pioneered by Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).

Robert Morrison of the London Missionary Society was in 1807 the first Protestant missionary to reach China. Protestantism expanded steadily throughout the nineteenth century and well into the first half of the twentieth. Western missionaries established mission churches along denominational lines. In the 1920s the rising tide of anti-imperialism among China's intellectuals led to anti-Christian riots.

Meanwhile, independent Protestant churches under Chinese leadership emerged outside the mission churches; these include the Local Churches (or Local Assemblies; Difang jiaohu; a term referring to any indigenous church whose theology promotes the idea of a single, united church for each city, town, or village), the Jesus Family (Yesu jiating), and the True Jesus Church (Zhen Yesu jiaohui). Two major ministry churches also came into being: the Christian Tabernacle (Jidutu Huitan) in Beijing and the Great Horse Station Congregation (Damazhan Jiaohu) in Gangzhou (Canton), under the ministries of Wang Mingdao (1900–1991) and Lin Xian' gao (Samuel Lamb, born in 1924), respectively.

In 1952 the Communist regime expelled all Western missionaries from China. Two quasi-religious mass organizations—the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) for Protestants and the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) for Catholics—were established under the direct supervision of the CCP, which made membership mandatory for all Protestant and Catholic churches. Some Catholics and independent Protestant groups refused to join.

During the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), public worship was forbidden, and Christians with divergent backgrounds began meeting in private homes; thus, "house churches" (jiating jiaohui) emerged all over the country. Since the death of Mao in 1976 and the "opening up" of China, the house church movement has mushroomed, and Protestant churches along the eastern seaboard and in the interior provinces (some where Western missionaries began their work in the nineteenth century and others where indigenous Christian groups flourished in the first half of the twentieth century) have experienced waves of revivals. New, unorthodox, quasi-Christian sectarian groups have also arisen.

The Chinese Catholic Church, historically under the direct control of Rome, was finally granted the status of a "national church" in 1946 and put under the formal jurisdiction of a native hierarchy. The pope ordained Thomas Tien (Tian) Gengxin (1890–1967), the bishop of Beijing, as the first Chinese cardinal. After 1949 the papacy's continuing assertion of supreme ecclesiastical authority over the Chinese Catholic Church clashed with the PRC's policy of independence in religion. The PRC government rejected Rome's authority over episcopal appointments and the ordination of priests in China. Chinese bishops who had received their appointments from the pope before 1949 were forbidden to make contact with Rome. While government-approved clergy served the "official churches" (those who had joined the CCPA) in the cities, "underground" priests (those approved by Rome) served rural Chinese Catholic congregations that had refused to join.

In the post-Mao "reform" era (since 1978), wanting to meet the severe shortage of Chinese clerics, the Vatican has waived canonical law and allowed the Chinese Catholic Church to ordain new priests on their own initiative and even consecrate new bishops. A list of Chinese episcopal nominees must first be sent to Rome for final approval through Rome's representatives in Hong Kong. Over two-thirds of the Chinese Catholic bishops currently associated with the CCPA gained Vatican approval during the early 1990s. Meanwhile, Beijing has begun to allow the consecration through the CCPA of bishops who have already openly received appointments from Rome.

EARLY AND MODERN LEADERS

Of the Jesuits' early Catholic converts, the most prominent were Li Zhizao (Leo; died in 1630) and Xu Guangqi (Paul Hsü; 1562–1633), both high-ranking ministers in the Ming imperial court. Xu and the Italian mathematician Matteo Ricci translated Euclid's Elements of Geometry into Chinese as part of the missionary strategy of introducing Western sciences as a prelude to evangelism.

Liang Fa (Aa-fa; 1789–1855, baptized in 1816), the first ordained Chinese Protestant pastor and evangelist, was a prolific gospel tract writer. His Quanshi Liangyan (Sincere Exhortations to the People of the World) converted Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864), founder of the anti-Qing Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Taiping Tianguo). Xi Shengmo (Shenmo means "overcoming the devil"; also known as Pastor Xi; 1830–96), the star convert of the China Inland Mission, was a legendary Christian leader and powerful evangelist.

Throughout the twentieth century Chinese Christian leaders submitted to the ruling authorities. Major conservatives (evangelicals) were Dora Yu (Yu Cidu; 1873–1931), Watchman Nee (Ni Tuosheng, 1903–72), Leland Wang (Wang Zai; 1898–1975), and John Sung (Song Shangjie; 1901–44). Major liberals were Cheng Jingyi (1881–1939), Yu Rizhang (David Yui; 1882–1936), and Wu Leichuan (1870–1944).

MAJOR THEOLOGIANS AND AUTHORS

Zhao Zichen (T.C. Chao; 1888–1979), a renowned theologian and a prolific writer, was a pioneering figure in advocating for the independence of the Chinese Church under the "three-self" principle (self-governing, self-propagating, and self-financing). Wu Yaozong (Y.T. Wu; 1893–1979), a liberal theologian and a prominent leader of China's YMCA, was the main architect behind the establishment of the TSPM. Wu argued that Chinese Christians must be "politically accountable." His successor, Ding Guangxun (K.H. Ting; born in 1915), was a consecrated Anglican bishop educated at Union Theological Seminary and Columbia University. Ding has contended that not every word in the Bible should be taken as the word of God and has advocated the remolding of Chinese Christianity as a faith that "answers to the tide of history and to the needs of the broad masses."

On the conservative side ("the spiritual group"; shulingpai), Reverend Jia Yuming (1880–1964) was the first Chinese theologian to introduce systematic theology (a branch of Western theology that explores Biblical doctrines analytically and thematically) into the Chinese Church. Wang Mingdao, a proponent of practical theology, emphasized moral discipline in day-to-day Christian life. Watchman Nee championed experiential theology, emphasizing a personal life of holiness, as well as the ecclesiastical theology of having only one church in each city, town, or village. Citing New Testament examples, such as the seven churches in seven localities mentioned in chapters 2 and 3 of Revelation, Nee called the idea a practical way of working out the "oneness of the Body of Christ" in a locality. This idea has contributed to the emergence of thousands of indigenous, independent Local Churches worldwide.

HOUSES OF WORSHIP AND HOLY PLACES

During the darkest days of the Cultural Revolution (1966–69), faithful Christians (mainly Protestants) still managed to meet in small groups in houses, fields, or parks. They sang hymns of praise, setting the lyrics to the tunes of revolutionary songs.

In the "reform" era (since 1978) Christians in China's large cities have met in traditional chapels or cathedrals. The Mo En Church (formerly Moor Memorial Methodist Church) in downtown Shanghai accommodates thousands of Protestant worshipers on Sunday. The great majority of Christians, however, meet in homes or larger "meeting points" (juhui dian), particularly in rural areas.

Marian shrines at Donglu in Hebei province and Sheshan in suburban Shanghai are the most prominent sites for Catholic pilgrimages. Apparitions of the Virgin Mary are rumored to have appeared at these and other holy places.

WHAT IS SACRED?

Both Chinese Protestants and Catholics treat the Communion bread and wine as sacred. Catholics also view holy pictures, as well as Marian statutes and icons of saints, as sacred.

HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

Chinese Catholics celebrate Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and the Assumption as the four great feast days. Those who live in the countryside also celebrate the Chinese popular festivals of the lunar calendar, from New Year's Day to the mid-Autumn festival, substituting compatible Catholic practices for the popular indigenous ones. At the Qingming Festival rural Catholics honor their ancestors with prayers in front of their graves rather than with sacrifices of food. At the Feasts of All Souls and All Saints, Catholic priests say masses for the dead.

Chinese Protestant members of official churches or of house congregations with denominational backgrounds celebrate traditional Christian holidays, such as Christmas and Easter. Indigenous independent congregations, such as the Local Churches, observe only the Lord's Day (Sunday) and reject Christmas and Easter for their "pagan" origins. They often celebrate traditional Chinese festivals by evangelizing. The Seventh-day Adventists observe the Sabbath (Saturday) instead of the Lord's Day.

MODE OF DRESS

After Mao's death in 1976, Chinese Christians, like other Chinese citizens, changed their gray Sun Yat-sen uniform (made of loose pants and jacket, required clothing during the Mao era) for more Westernized dress. Especially in rural areas, Christians tend to dress conservatively, both in style and in color. Clergy in the official churches wear formal vestments during worship, according to their denominational tradition; other clergy usually dress in Western style suits.

DIETARY PRACTICES

Chinese Christians follow the injunction in the New Testament (Acts 15:29) to abstain from eating the meat of strangled animals, animal blood, and foods that have been sacrificed to idols. Chinese Catholics still observe the prohibition against eating meat on Fridays. Some fast to make their prayers more effective.

RITUALS

Christian worship in official Protestant churches in such urban centers as Beijing follows the practice of the pre-1949 mission churches and is patterned on a typical Western service. Baptism by sprinkling is most common, and weddings and memorial services are conducted in Western style.

Local Churches and Seventh-day Adventists in Beijing and Shanghai conduct their worship services openly and independently. The vast majority of Protestants, however, meet at unregistered "house churches" (jiating jiaohui) or registered "meeting points" (juhui dian) in both rural communities and cities. Some Local Churches advise women to wear a head covering at meetings, often a black hairnet. The Local Church in Nanjing holds weekday evening meetings that sometimes include a sermon; sometimes the meetings are for prayers and fellowship. On Sunday mornings the church holds Holy Communion, which they call "meeting for breaking the bread" (bobing juhui). Baptisms are performed in a Baptismo (commonly a cement or ceramic pool). Most Local Church weddings and funerals include scriptural readings, frequently from Ephesians 5:23–27 for weddings and from I Corinthians 15:50–58 for funerals.

Since the Second Vatican Council (1962–65) Catholic priests have conducted Mass in native Chinese dialects in such major cities as Beijing and Tianjin, whereas some older priests in the countryside still hold Mass in Latin. Other aspects of the Mass have changed significantly: The altar is now set between the priest and the congregation, so that the priest faces the worshipers, and congregants may sing hymns in Chinese and participate in the reading of the Scriptures. Underground priests in rural areas conduct Mass and sacramental rituals in believers' homes.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Official Protestant churches perform rites identical with their counterparts outside China, with some notable exceptions. Whether operated officially (registered) or as house churches (unregistered), Local Churches require believers who desire baptism to show evidence of having been saved and to learn the "basic truths" regarding Christ's redemptive work on the cross. Baptism is by full immersion. If a believer is called to serve the Lord full-time, a consecration meeting is conducted for his sake; in some places church elders lay hands on him and bless him so he will receive spiritual gifts to enhance his ministry. Weddings afford a couple the opportunity to consecrate their new family to the Lord. Funerals allow the living to testify to the faithful Christian service of the deceased.

Chinese Catholic children are baptized in infancy. At age seven they may begin receiving Holy Communion at Mass. Young Catholics participate in the sacrament of confirmation at the onset of puberty. Virtually all rural Catholics share some non-Catholic folk customs associated with burials: providing a funeral banquet, wearing mourning garments, and forming a procession to the grave site. Catholics, however, do not kowtow to the casket or burn incense sticks and mock paper money. Instead, Catholic peasants sprinkle holy water on the casket, say prayers for the dead, and place a simple cross on the burial mound or tombstone. When one is available, a Catholic priest attends the funeral and leads the prayers; otherwise the family of the deceased leads the service.

MEMBERSHIP

Catholicism is an inherited faith in China, particularly in rural areas. Those born into Catholic families need not make any personal commitment to the church. In official Protestant churches membership is confirmed by baptism. Church membership grows through public evangelism conducted in registered meeting places and through personal contact with relatives and friends. Government regulations forbid preaching the gospel to children under 18, though the policy has been modified since the 1980s.

House church members evangelize aggressively. Young members become itinerant evangelists, boldly roaming beyond the boundaries of their native provinces in search of converts, which is against government regulations. Some young evangelists sign wills before leaving parents or spouses in anticipation of arrest and imprisonment.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

The PRC's religious policy is that all religious practices must be compatible with Chinese socialism. Despite their rapid growth, contemporary Protestant and Catholic churches may not effect any social reforms and dare not publicly voice concern over rampant official corruption and social injustice. Since 1978 Chinese Protestants and Catholics have resumed some of their traditional social services, such as providing famine relief and setting up schools and orphanages.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

Chinese Catholicism and Protestantism consider marriage a holy union (one of the seven sacraments for Catholics) that may be broken only in cases of adultery or death. The traditional Chinese emphasis on the family and the relationship between husband and wife (valued as one of the five cardinal bonds in Chinese society) reinforces the Christian value. Divorce—not allowed for Catholics—is infrequent among Chinese Protestants, especially among house church believers in the rural areas. Mixed marriages among urban Catholics are common, but in rural communities Catholic parents usually seek Catholic wives for their sons.

POLITICAL IMPACT

Chinese government policy forbids any religious organization from interfering with the political or judicial process or from holding any activity that may have a negative impact on national unification or harmonious relationships among nationals. Even after the 1982 publication of Document 19, which embodies the government's newest and considerably liberalized guidelines governing religious affairs, little room is allowed for Christian groups to voice political concerns. The essential function of the TSPM and the CCPA is identical with that of the CBA: to implement the official guidelines contained in Document 19. At the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (an advisory organization whose members include high-ranking CCP officials as well as representatives from small parties and registered religious organizations), the Catholic and Protestant representatives are allowed to voice some degree of concern over political matters.

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES

Abortion is extremely controversial among conservative Chinese Christian groups, even though they have no objection to the common practice of sterilization (performed to ensure compliance with the government's "one child only" policy). Women practice ministry widely, in both official and house churches, but certain conservative groups still advise women to cover their heads and allow women to speak only to all-female audiences.

Also controversial is the legal status of "cults" (xiejiao), which are the objects of a recent government crackdown. The government has condemned and outlawed some Christian groups as cults on the basis of their political outlook rather than their religious doctrine. It has treated some Local Church groups in Zhejiang as cults and has labeled them the "shouters sect" (Huhanpai) because they were found praying loudly en masse during their meetings. Some of these groups have been vindicated and granted legal status after registering their meeting facilities with the government. Other groups, such as the Eastern Lightning sect (Dongfang Shandian), are regarded as cults both by the government and by Chinese Christians at large. Eastern Lightning originated in Henan in 1989 and claims that Christ has already returned to earth (like the "lightning") as a woman in China (the "East"), as Jesus predicted in Matthew 24:27. The group is said to have specifically targeted house church members in the rural areas and the Catholic clergy as potential converts.

CULTURAL IMPACT

Since the New Cultural Movement of the May Fourth era (1919), Christian influence on Chinese literature and music has been pronounced. The novel Yao (Medicine) by Lu Xun (1881–1936), an eminent leader of the new Chinese literary movement, portrays vividly the bold spirit of suffering of Christ. The work of Bing Xin (pen name of Xie Wanying; born in 1900), a renowned female author, was inspired by Christ's spirit of love. Death of Jesus by Mao Dun (1896–1981); the confessional literature of Ba Jin (born in 1905), China's St. Augustine; and the works of leading contemporary scholars, such as Zhu Weizhi and literary critic and historian Ma Jia, all attest to the profound impact of Christianity on Chinese literature.

Thousands of classic church songs and hymns by such Western composers as Charles Wesley, John Newton, Fannie Crosby, and A.B. Simpson have been translated into Chinese. In the late 1920s Chinese Christians began writing their own hymns. The 1936 hymnal Putian Songzan (Hymns of Universal Praise) and the hymnal compiled by Watchman Nee (which includes his own compositions) are widely used among Chinese Protestants. The music popular among the house churches comes from Jianan Shixuan (Songs of Canaan), composed by Lü Xiaomin, a young Chinese Muslim who converted to Christianity.

Other Religions

By the late seventh century Muslim traders had reached China by land from the west (the Silk Route) and by sea from the southeast. Foreign Muslims from the West settled in northwestern China during the Tang dynasty (618–907), and under their influence, some Chinese had converted to Islam by the eighth century. As part of the Mongol empire during the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368), China found its land and sea communications with the Muslim world greatly improved. Kublai Khan, the Mongol ruler, aggressively recruited Muslims from various parts of his empire to help his government as ministers and tax collectors, resulting in an influx of Muslims into all parts of China. Though a minority, the Muslim population increased steadily, primarily through births, intermarriages between Muslim men and Chinese women, and the adoption of Chinese male children into wealthy Muslim families as mates for their daughters.

The founder of the Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1643) decreed that Muslims in China must adopt Chinese dress, take a Chinese name, and learn and speak Chinese. The descendants of these Chinese-speaking Muslims became known as the Hui, or Chinese Muslims. The Hui, though they complied with the decree, held tenaciously to their faith, their religious practices, and their dietary restrictions, retaining their identity as members of the Muslim world. Contemporary Hui live in nearly every urban center and town throughout China, with the largest concentrations in the Ningxia and Qinghai Autonomous Regions in the northwest. Some Mongols in Inner Mongolia on China's northern frontier are also Muslims.

Turkic-speaking Muslims, the majority of whom are Uyghurs, are concentrated in China's far northwest (Xinjiang). Both Turkic and Hui Muslims responded to repression under the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) with frequent rebellions. The legendary Hui figure, Ma Hualong (1810–71), led a major insurrection against the Qing from 1862 to 1878 that ravaged all of northwestern China. During the Republican period (1912–49) the Kazakh chieftain Osman (Usman) Bator led a full-scale rebellion in Xinjiang against the Nationalist government and formed the Eastern Turkestan Republic. Two Muslim leaders in the northwest, Burhan and Saifudin, negotiated a compact with the Communist regime, resulting in the 1955 creation of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Shahidi, a Tartar general of Xinjiang and chairman of the Islamic Association of China, has supported carrying out the CCP's policies among the Turkic-Muslim population, but radical Muslims in Xinjiang have always promoted a separatist movement. The 1999 jailing of Rabiya Kadeer, a prominent Muslim businesswoman, reflects the continuing tension between non-Chinese-speaking Muslims and the PRC government.

Since the founding of the PRC, serious local disturbances have occurred frequently in the northwest between the Gedimu ("the ancient tradition"; officially recognized Islamic groups) and newer organizations, such as Sufi orders that emerged before 1949. Chinese Sufism, which originated in Central Asia, is a synthesis of Islam, Taoism, and martial arts practices; it emphasizes the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. Sufi leaders among the Uyghurs maintain influence over their adherents through tight control of sacred religious sites.

Wang Daiyu (1580–1650), acclaimed as China's most illustrious Islamic scholar, wrote the first important text in Chinese on the Islamic faith. The twentieth-century's famous four chief ahongs (grand imams) were Wang Jingzhai (1879–1949), Da Busheng (1874–1965), Ha Decheng (1888–1943), and Ma Songting (1895–1992). Ma Jian (Ma Zishi, 1906–78), a prolific translator from Arabic into Chinese, was actively involved in PRC politics, and he emphasized the compatibility between the teachings of Islam and Marxism.

China's most famous mosques include Fenghuang Si in Hangzhou, Huaisheng Si in Guangzhou (Canton), Shengyou Si (Mosque of Friends of the Prophet) in Quanzhou (all three built in the eleventh century), and the thirteenth-century Xianhe Si in Yangzhou. Shrines (known as gongbei among the Hui and mazar in Xinjiang) built around the tombs of Sufi masters and other religious leaders are important sites for Muslim worshipers in the northwest. The Honglefu daotang (Hall of the Path or Doctrine) in Ningxia, the site of Ma Hualong's execution and tomb, regained its status as a major center of Sufi worship in the 1980s. Thousands of followers of the Zheherenye (Jahriyyah) Sufi sect from Yunnan, Xinjiang, and elsewhere gather there during major religious festivals.

Muslims in China may not consume pork or other nonhalal meat and generally eat lamb and mutton. Turkic Muslims in Xinjiang eat polo (pilaf, made of mutton and rice) and naan bread (baked as in northern India and Afghanistan); naan stalls are common in cities as far east as Xi'an. Major Muslim festivals observed in China are Shengjijie (Maolujie; the Prophet's birthday), Kaijaijie (the Fast-Breaking Festival at the end of Ramadan), and Guerbangjie (Corban, or Feast of Sacrifices; also called Zhongxiaojie, or Feast of Loyalty and Filiality).

Islamic worship rituals (libai or baigong) in China include the five daily prayers and the observance of Ramadan. The Hui largely ignore the traditional Muslim rites of passage, though some rural communities, such as the town of Na in Ningxia, faithfully preserve them. On the third day after the birth of each child in Na, a local ahong (imam) reads the scripture in the family's home and gives the child a jingming (Koranic name). The family also gives the child a hanming (Chinese name) or xiaoming (school name) for official purposes. All Hui boys in Qinghai undergo gehetainai (circumcision) when they are 12.

Hui men may be distinguished from Han Chinese by their round-topped, brimless skullcaps made of white or black cotton or wool. Beards are also an important marker, especially for older men. Turkic Muslims may be identified by their caps and ethnic dress. Men and boys favor "flower caps" (colorfully embroidered square caps) or tall fur or felt hats. Women generally wear black, white, or green kerchiefs made of silk or cotton. Sufis of the Jahriyyah orders shave the sides of their beards in memory of their founding shaykh (religious leader), Ma Mingxin (1719–81), whose beard was shaved off before his execution.

Taoism as a religion (Taojiao) originated in a movement during the second century called Tianshi tao (the Way of Celestial Masters). The founding of this movement is attributed to Zhang Ling (Zhang Daoling; 34–156 c.e.). Zhang claimed that the Taishang Laojun (Lord Lao the Most High: the deified title of Laozi, who lived from approximately 604 to 531 b.c.e.) bestowed the title Tianshi (Celestial Master) on him in a revelation in 142 c.e. In time the movement absorbed elements of popular religion. Wang Chongyang (1127–70), founder of the Quanzhen (Perfect Truth) sect, was the first major Taoist theologian whose ideology combined Taoist, Buddhist, and, to a lesser degree, Confucian ideas.

Taoists believe in a hierarchy of gods—including mythical figures as well as deified human beings—all under the supreme deity Yuhuang dadi (the Jade Emperor). Taoist rituals performed by individuals are generally aimed at prolongation of life or immortality. Every Taoist must perform the zhai (purification) rituals involving sacrifices, fasts, and mental renewal. Although Taoist beliefs and rituals, such as the jiao community ritual for cosmic renewal, have all been absorbed into the complex amalgam of Chinese popular religious practices, Taoism as a religion has maintained a separate institutional identity in Chinese society.

Most Taoists in China today are priests, monks, and nuns. Along with some lay devotees, they conduct their religious rituals at Taoist monasteries. The best-known Quanzhen monastery is the White Cloud Monastery (Baiyuan guan) in Beijing, which currently houses the headquarters of the Chinese Taoist Association. Other famous Taoist sacred sites (temples, pavilions, and the like) are the Yonglo gong (Chunyang gong; gong means "palace") in Shanxi and the Louguan tai (tai means terrace; also called the Ziyün lou) on the mountain Zhongnan Shan in Shaanxi. Other Taoist sacred mountains include Wudang Shan in Hubei, Mao Shan in Jiangsu, Longhu Shan in Jiangxi, Qingcheng Shan in Sichuan, and Lao Shan in Shandong.

The PRC's regulations embodied in Document 19 outlaw any public religious rituals (including Taoist) that it considers superstitious or harmful to the physical and mental health of the people. The government has also banned some traditional Taoist rituals performed for individuals, such as spirit writing (fuluan, a divinatory technique for communicating with gods). Local authorities may simply ignore such practices in rural communities.

Confucianism is a belief system that integrates the original teachings of Confucius (551–479 b.c.e.) and new elements advanced by later Confucian thinkers. It consists of doctrinal teachings on proper interpersonal relations within human society and ritual practices performed in relation to supernatural beings and the spirits of deceased ancestors. Many of the beliefs and practices Confucius adopted had been in existence since the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1027–777 b.c.e.). From the eleventh century c.e. onward, because of its ideological and ritual development in response to Chan mysticism and Taoist metaphysics, the belief system became known as Neo-Confucianism. In modern times the system has taken on the name of New Confucianism.

Throughout the time of the imperial dynasties, Confucian rituals were an intrinsic part of state religion. These rituals were largely practiced among the educated elite, including officials in the imperial bureaucracy and upper-class gentry in the countryside. Until 1905 Confucianism was a basis for upward social mobility, as the civil service examination required candidates to write an essay on a phrase from a Confucian text. The Communist revolution under Mao totally reoriented Chinese social structure, and Confucian rituals were virtually abandoned. Confucius temples are still preserved (like famous Buddhist and Taoist temples) as national cultural monuments.

Confucian beliefs recognize a supreme reality (or being) in the universe known as Heaven (Tien) or Lord on High (Shangdi), as well as the existence of gods (shen) and spirits (ling). Confucians also venerate celestial and earthly deities (the sun, moon, mountains, and rivers), all of which are presumed to have the power to intervene in human affairs. Only the emperor, as the Son of Heaven (Tienzi), could conduct the grand rite of sacrificing burnt offerings in the name of the Cult of Heaven. The emperor also offered smaller sacrifices at the altars of the earth, sun, and moon located (since the time of the Ming dynasty; 1368–1644) in the imperial capital. Heaven had his own will (tienyi), and he issued mandates (tienming). As Son of Heaven, the emperor had to embody cardinal Confucian virtues, such as benevolence (ren) and justice (yi) to his people. Before withdrawing his mandate from an unworthy monarch, Heaven showed his displeasure by issuing warnings to the emperor in the form of portents, omens, and wonders (such as earthquakes, solar and lunar eclipses, and unusual and freakish occurrences in the natural world).

Confucianism also involved family rituals, the most important being ancestor worship. Various rites pertinent to the human life cycle (those surrounding adulthood, prospective marriages, funerals, and anniversaries of a death) have been absorbed into the syncretic system of popular religion. Under the PRC Kong Miao—the Confucius Temple in Qufu, Shandong (Confucius' birth place)—is a tourist site for religious pilgrimage. Some metropolitan cities, such as Beijing and Tianjin, also have Confucius temples. A small number of Confucian ritual specialists, along with Taoist and Buddhist priests, may be hired to preside over popular religious events.

Silas Wu

See Also Vol. 1: Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism

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