CALIPH

A title (from the Arabic khalīfa, meaning successor, lieutenant, deputy) applied to the successors of the Prophet Muḥammad. The first caliph was Abū Bakr (a.d. 632–634), and the last, the Ottoman Abdul Mejid (1923–24), the Ottoman caliphate being abolished in 1924 by Kemal Ataturk. Very early in the political history of islam, controversy over the office of the caliphate divided the Islamic world, giving rise to three competing groups: the sunnites, the shĪ’ites, and the Khārijites.

The Sunnite theory of the caliphate was that the office was an elective one, thus following the custom of pre-Islamic tribes. But the candidate had to be of the tribe of Quraysh, the tribe of the Prophet Muḥammad. The Khārijites opposed this limitation, holding that the election should be truly democratic, allowing for the election of any person, even a non-Arab. The Shī’ites opposed the very principle of election, holding that God Himself made the appointment of their imĀm, whom they regarded as impeccable.

The duties of the caliph were to preserve the religion; to establish equity; to maintain public order; to maintain penal sanctions; to equip armies for guarding the frontiers; to lead the holy war (jihād ) against those who refused to accept Islam until they either did so or entered into the status of protection (see dhimmi); to collect the alms; to divide the booty; to employ trustworthy men and appoint good advisers; and to attend personally to the supervision of the conduct of government. In order to qualify for the caliphate a person had to be an adult male of the tribe of Quraysh, of good character, free from mental and physical defects, with administrative ability, knowledge of the law, and the courage to defend the territory of Islam.

The Prophet Muḥammad died without making provisions for a successor. His sons had died before him. Abū Bakr was the first caliph, followed by three others, all of whom were elected democratically. These four caliphs, Abū Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthmān, and ‘Alī, are referred to as the"rightly guided caliphs" (al-khulafā’ al-rāshidūn). Their combined reign extended from 632 to 661, a period referred to as that of the Orthodox Caliphate, the seat of which was in mecca, one of the two holy cities of Islam, the other being medina. The succeeding period was that of the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750). Its founder was Mu’āwiya (661–680), who moved the seat of government to Damascus (see umayyads). Henceforth, the caliphate became hereditary, though the representatives of the community still expressed their consent through the institution of the bay'a, symbolized by a handshake with the caliph and denoting recognition of his authority and obedience to him. This dynasty had 14 caliphs and was succeeded by the ‘Abbāsid dynasty, which numbered 37 (see ’abbĀsids). The capital of this dynasty was in Baghdad, and its downfall came with the sacking of the city by the Mongols in 1258. In Spain, the Umayyad Caliphs of Cordova reigned from 756 to 1031 (followed by minor Spanish dynasties until 1492). The rival Fātimid Caliphate of Egypt, representing the Shī’ite minority in Islam, numbered 14 caliphs who reigned from 909 to 1171 when the dynasty was overthrown by the famous Sultan saladin. The Ottoman claim to the caliphate was based on an alleged nomination of the Sultan Selim I (1515–20) by the last member of the ‘Abbāsid dynasty, who died in exile in 1539 in Egypt. But Selim did not fulfill the necessary qualification of belonging to the Prophet's tribe of Quraysh, hence the anomaly in the Ottoman Caliphate until it was abolished.

Bibliography: t. w. arnold, The Caliphate (London 1924). h. laoust, ed., Le Califat dans la doctrine de Rasīd Ridá (Beirut 1938). l. gardet, La Cité Musulmane: Vie sociale et politique (Paris 1954).

[g. makdisi]