Imaging Studies

views updated May 23 2018

Imaging studies

Definition

Imaging studies are tests performed with a variety of techniques that produce pictures of the inside of a patient's body. They have become indispensable tools in cancer screening and detection.

Description

Imaging tests are performed using sound waves, radioactive particles, magnetic fields, or x rays that are detected and converted into images after passing through body tissues. Dyes are sometimes used as contrasting agents with x-ray tests so that organs or tissues not seen with conventional x rays can be enhanced. The operating principle of the various techniques is based on the fact that rays and particles interact differently with various types of tissues, especially when cancerous growths are present. In this way, the interior of the body can be visualized and pictures are provided of normal structure and function as well as of abnormalities.

Imaging tests differ from endoscopic tests, which are carried out with a flexible, lighted piece of tubing connected to a viewing lens or camera.

Imaging studies are used to detect cancer in its early stages in a procedure called screening. Screening is performed in patients who have no obvious cancer symptoms. Imaging studies are also used to locate tumors in patients who have symptoms which the physician may wish to investigate further so as to distinguish between benign growths or cancerous tumors. They are also used to determine the extent of a cancer and indicate how a given treatment is unfolding. As such, they represent crucial tools for cancer diagnosis and management.

Major imaging techniques

Computed tomography scan (CT scan)

Computed tomography scans show a cross-section of a part of the body. In this technique, a thin beam is used to produce a series of exposures detected at different angles. The exposures are fed into a computer which overlaps them so as to yield a single image analogous to a slice of the organ or body part being scanned. A dye is often injected into the patient so as to improve contrast and obtain images that are clearer than images obtained with x rays.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging also produces cross-sectional images of the body using powerful magnetic fields instead of radiation. MRI is especially useful to detect and locate cancers of the liver and the central nervous system, which occur in the brain or the spinal cord. It uses a cylinder housing a magnet which will induce the required magnetic field. The patient lies on a platform inside the scanner. The magnetic field aligns the hydrogen atoms present in the tissue being scanned in a given direction. Following a burst of radio-frequency radiation, the atoms flip back to their original orientation while emitting signals which a fed into a computer for conversion into a two-or three-dimensional image. Dyes can also be injected into patients to produce clearer images.

Mammography

Mammography is an x-ray examination of the breast. It is often used as a screening tool to detect breast abnormalities and cancers before they can be felt. Mammograms (the image produced) are acquired using an xray machine working at lower radiation levels than conventional x ray . The breast is compressed between two plates so as to allow the low-level x-ray radiation to produce a film.

Nuclear scan

Nuclear scans, also called radionuclide imaging or scintigraphy, use substances called tracers or radionuclides that release low levels of radioactivity. The test is based on the principle that the tracers will be absorbed to a different degree by different tissues, thus allowing to distinguish between normal and cancerous tissues. Common nuclear medicine scans for cancer patients to receive are bone scans; liver, spleen, and thyroid scans are also frequently performed.

Position emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography uses a form of sugar that contains a radioactive atom which emits particles called positrons. The positrons are absorbed to a different extent by cells varying in their metabolic rate. PET scans are especially useful for brain imaging studies and are widely applied to the assessment of the spread of cancers in the lungs. PET scans are also being used experimentally in the assessment of breast, colon, rectum, and ovarian cancers.

X rays

X rays produce shallow images of certain specificorgans or tissues. X rays are a form of high-energy radiation and tissues of the body can absorb it to varying degrees. For example, bones absorb less x rays than soft tissue. After passing through the body, the x rays are directed on a film, where the dense tissue appears as a white shadow, thus providing contrast with the soft tissue, which produces a darker impression on the film. X rays produce a single image.

Chest x rays are used to detect lung and bronchial cancers, and also to evaluate a patient's symptoms, such as shortness of breath. Other types of x rays, such as abdominal x rays, may also be ordered to assess a patient's symptoms, but are not used as cancer screening tools as chest x rays may be used.

X rays with dye studies

Dye studies are usually performed by injecting the contrasting agent in the patient's circulatory system or in the target organ. These studies are used to produce angiograms, cystograms, myelograms, lymphangiograms and fistulograms.

ANGIOGRAM.

An angiogram is an examination of the blood vessels using x rays. It is usually performed with intravenous injection of fluorescein dye followed by multiframe photography. The doctor inserts a small tube (catheter) into the blood vessel and then injects the dye that makes the vessels visible when the x-ray pictures are acquired.

CYSTOGRAM.

A cystogram is a scan of the bladder and ureters. The ureters are passages that lead from the kidneys to the bladder. A catheter is inserted into the bladder or a radioactive material, called a radioisotope, is introduced into the bladder. An oral cholecystogram (OCG) is an x-ray examination of the gallbladder, the organ that helps release bile into the small intestine for the digestion of fats. The gallbladder is not seen well on conventional x-ray pictures and special tablets are ingested by mouth to enhance contrast.

MYELOGRAM.

A myelogram is an x ray of the spine and spinal cord. The spinal cord is the nerve tissue enclosed in the vertebral column that goes from the bottom of the brain to halfway down the back. During a myelogram, x-ray dye is injected into the spinal fluid and mixes with it, flowing around the spinal cord which can then be seen and recorded on x-ray film.

LYMPHANGIOGRAM.

A lymphangiogram is an x ray of the lymphatic system, also carried out with dye injection for contrasting purposes. It is used to screen for lymph node involvement in cancer.

FISTULOGRAM.

A fistula is an abnormal passage within body tissue. For example, a fistula may connect two organs inside the body that are not normally connected. A fistula may also lead from an internal organ inside the body to the surface outside. Examples are: between the skin and the bowel (enterocutaneous fistula), between the stomach and the colon (gastrocolic fistula). A fistulogram is an x-ray examination of this abnormal passage. The contrasting agent is injected directly into the fistula so that it will show up on x-ray pictures.

Fluoroscopy

Fluoroscopy is one of the oldest areas of diagnostic radiology. It is similar to x ray in that a small dose of x rays is directed through a body part but the image obtained is displayed on a monitor rather than on the conventional x-ray film. The fluoroscope provides images of internal body parts as they move, similar to a movie. A continuous x-ray beam is passed through the body part being examined, and is transmitted to an image-intensifying tube, which is a TV-like monitor so that the body part and its motion can be seen in detail.

During fluoroscopy, the patient is placed between the x-ray source and the monitor. The live images generatedby the x-ray source strike the image-intensifying tube and allow doctors to see the size, shape, and structure of a patient's internal structures. Because the radiation is blocked more effectively by dense tissue, such as that of a tumor, the result is a dark shadow of the tumor on the screen, against a light background. Most fluoroscopy devices include television or video cameras attached to the image-intensifier tube. The camera output can be digitized and sent through a computer for image enhancement.

In fluoroscopic studies, the radiologist can either insert an intravenous (IV) catheter (hollow tube inserted into blood vessels or into an organ) to biopsy a tumor or he can use a contrast agent to visualize the organ or area of interest. The contrast agent allows the image to be viewed more clearly. Contrast agents may be introduced into the patient's body by injection, swallowing, or an enema. Fluoroscopic exams include the following types of tests: barium swallow, barium enema , and intravenous pyelography, also called intravenous urography .

BARIUM SWALLOW.

Used for GI series. The patient drinks a chalky, milkshake-like concoction containing barium, which coats the esophagus and stomach. The barium absorbs the x rays so that the lining of the upper digestive tract can be clearly seen. In barium x rays, fluoroscopy allows the physician to see the movement of the intestines as the barium moves through them.

BARIUM ENEMA.

In a lower GI series, the patient receives a barium enema, which coats the intestines and rectum. A gap in the image in the stomach or small intestine could indicate an ulcer and bubbles in the normally smooth large intestinal lining may be abnormal growths.

INTRAVENOUS PYELOGRAPHY (IVP).

Pyelography, also called urography, consists of several x rays of all the urinary system, meaning kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. A contrast agent is injected through a vein, to make the organs visible for the x rays.

See Also Screening test; Ultrasonography

Resources

BOOKS

Seeram, E. Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications and Quality Control. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders & Co., 2001.

von Schulthess, G. K., ed. Clinical Positron Emission Tomography Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999.

Webb, W. Richard, William E. Brant, Clyde A. Helms, and others, eds. Fundamentals of Body CT. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1997.

Westbrook, C. Handbook of MRI Techniques. Malden, MA:Blackwell Science, 1999.

PERIODICALS

Frassica, F. J., J. A. Khanna, E. F. McCarthy. "The role of MR imaging in soft tissue tumor evaluation:perspective of the orthopedic oncologist and musculoskeletal pathologist." Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Clin. N. Am. 8 (November 2000):915-27.

Hopper, K. D., K. Singapuri, A. Finkel. "Body CT and oncologic imaging." Radiology 215 (April 2000):27-40.

Jain, P., A. C. Arroliga. "Spiral CT for lung cancer screening: is it ready for prime time?" Cleveland Clinical Journal of Medicine 68 (January 2001):74-81.

Pomper, M. G., J. D. Port. "New techniques in MR imaging of brain tumors." Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Clin. N. Am. 8 (November 2000):691-713.

Roelcke, U., K. L. Leenders. "PET in neuro-oncology." Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology 127 (January 2001):2-8.

ORGANIZATIONS

National Cancer Information Center:1-800-ACS-2345

National Cancer Institute, Public Inquiries Office, Building 31, Room 10A31, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2580, Bethesda, MD 20892-2580. (301)435-2848. Imaging Information and data sheets: <http://search.nci.nih.gov/search97cgi/s97_cgi>.

OTHER

"Imaging Information." American Cancer Society. 15 October 1999. 11 July 2001 <http://www3.cancer.org/cancerinfo/load_cont.asp?ct=1&doc=66>.

Monique Laberge, Ph.D.

KEY TERMS

Cancer screening

A procedure designed to detect cancer even though a person has no symptoms, usually performed using an imaging technique.

CT scan

An imaging technique that uses a computer to combine multiple x-ray images into a two-dimensional cross-sectional image

Mammography

An imaging technique producing x-ray pictures of the breast called mammograms.

MRI

A special imaging technique used to image internal parts of the body, especially soft tissues.

PET

A highly specialized imaging technique using radioactive substances to identify active tumors.

Radionuclide imaging

An imaging technique in which a radionuclide is injected through tissue and a display is obtained from a scanner device.

Imaging Studies

views updated Jun 11 2018

Imaging Studies

Definition

Description

Major imaging techniques in mental health

Resources

Definition

Imaging studies are tests performed with a variety of techniques that produce pictures of the inside of a patient’s body.

Description

Imaging tests are performed using sound waves, radioactive particles, magnetic fields, or x rays that are detected and converted into images after passing through body tissues. Dyes are sometimes used as contrasting agents with x-ray tests so that organs or tissues not seen with conventional x rays can be enhanced. The operating principle of the various techniques is based on the fact that rays and particles interact differently with various types of tissues, especially when abnormalities are present. In this way, the interior of the body can be visualized and pictures are provided of normal structure and function as well as of abnormalities. In the fields pertaining to mental health including psychology and psychiatry, imaging is often used to help rule out other health problems that could be causing symptoms (such as brain tumors), and imaging studies are often used in research. Once a person’s diagnosis has been established, various imaging techniques may help to confirm the diagnosis, and also serve as a way to study the disorder. The imaging techniques may shed new light on the way the disorder affects the brain, so that new treatment methods can be discovered.

Major imaging techniques in mental health

Computed tomography scan (CT scan)

Computed tomography , or computed axial tomography (CAT), scans show a cross-section of a part of the body, such as the brain. In this technique, a thin beam is used to produce a series of exposures detected at different angles. The exposures are fed into a computer which overlaps them, yielding a single image analogous to a slice of the organ or body part being scanned. A dye is often injected into the patient so as to improve contrast and obtain images that are clearer than images obtained with x rays.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging also produces cross-sectional images of the body using powerful magnetic fields instead of radiation. MRI uses a cylinder housing a magnet which will induce the required magnetic field. The patient lies on a platform inside the scanner. The magnetic field aligns the hydrogen atoms present in the tissue being scanned in a given direction. Following a burst of radio-frequency radiation, the atoms flip back to their original orientation while emitting signals which a fed into a computer for conversion into a two- or three-dimensional image. Dyes can also be injected into patients to produce clearer images.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography uses a form of sugar that contains a radioactive atom which emits particles called positrons. The positrons are absorbed to a different extent by cells varying in their metabolic rate. PET scans are especially useful for brain imaging studies and are used to illustrate the differences between brains of people without mental disorders

KEY TERMS

CT scan —An imaging technique that uses a computer to combine multiple x-ray images into a two-dimensional cross-sectional image.

MRI —Magnetic resonance imaging. A special imaging technique used to image internal parts of the body, especially soft tissues.

PET —Abbreviation for positron emission tomography, a highly specialized imaging technique using radioactive substances to identify active tumors, as well as nuerological disease progression.

SPECT —Abbreviation for single photon emission computerized tomography, a highly specialized imaging technique using radioactive substances used in research, and to identify neurological disorder/disease progression.

and brains of people with mental disorders. For example, because PET scans can detect brain activity, PET scans of the brains of depressed and non-depressed persons can show researchers where brain activity is decreased in depressed patients. Similar scans have been taken of brains affected by schizophrenia or Alzheimer’s disease. Such research can help scientists discover new ways to treat these disorders.

Single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT)

Single photon emission computerized tomography is used in research, and in diagnosing brain disorders such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. As of 2002, research for Parkinson’s disease at Harvard, for example, in the Division of Neurochemistry was focused on the diagnosis of the disease before motor control is compromised signalling the advancing degeneration. It uses a radio-labeled compound that targets key proteins responsible for regulating brain dopamine levels to determine neural changes before problems with motor symptoms begin to occur. This research is also being used to improve PET imaging in the diagnosis and consequent treatment of these neurological disorders.

Resources

BOOKS

Seeram, E. Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications and Quality Control. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders and Co., 2001.

von Schulthess, G. K., ed. Clinical Positron Emission Tomography. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 1999.

Westbrook, C. Handbook of MRI Techniques. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, 1999.

OTHER

Alzheimer Society of British Columbia. “What is Alzheimer Disease?” (cited June 2002) <http://www.alzheimerbc.org/>.

Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Parkinson’s Disease.rdquo; (cited June 2002) <http://www.hms.harvard.edu/nerprc/parkinson/>.

Monique Laberge, Ph.D.

Imaging studies

views updated May 17 2018

Imaginal desensitization see Exposure treatment

Imaginal exposure see Exposure treatment

Imaging studies

Definition

Imaging studies are tests performed with a variety of techniques that produce pictures of the inside of a patient's body.

Description

Imaging tests are performed using sound waves, radioactive particles, magnetic fields, or x rays that are detected and converted into images after passing through body tissues. Dyes are sometimes used as contrasting agents with x-ray tests so that organs or tissues not seen with conventional x rays can be enhanced. The operating principle of the various techniques is based on the fact that rays and particles interact differently with various types of tissues, especially when abnormalities are present. In this way, the interior of the body can be visualized and pictures are provided of normal structure and function as well as of abnormalities. In the fields pertaining to mental health including psychology and psychiatry, imaging is often used to help rule out other health problems that could be causing symptoms (such as brain tumors), and imaging studies are often used in research. Once a person's diagnosis has been established, various imaging techniques may help to confirm the diagnosis, and also serve as a way to study the disorder. The imaging techniques may shed new light on the way the disorder affects the brain, so that new treatment methods can be discovered.

Major imaging techniques in mental health

Computed tomography scan (CT scan)

Computed tomography , or computed axial tomography (CAT), scans show a cross-section of a part of the body, such as the brain. In this technique, a thin x-ray beam is used to produce a series of exposures detected at different angles. The exposures are fed into a computer which overlaps them, yielding a single image analogous to a slice of the organ or body part being scanned. A dye is often injected into the patient so as to improve contrast and obtain images that are clearer than images obtained with regular x rays.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging also produces cross-sectional images of the body, but MRI uses powerful magnetic fields instead of radiation. MRI uses a cylinder housing a magnet that will induce the required magnetic field. The patient lies on a platform inside the scanner. The magnetic field aligns the hydrogen atoms present in the tissue being scanned in a given direction. Following a burst of radio-frequency radiation, the atoms flip back to their original orientation while emitting signals that are fed into a computer for conversion into a two- or three-dimensional image. Dyes can also be injected into patients to produce clearer images.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography uses a form of sugar that contains a radioactive atom which emits particles called positrons. The positrons are absorbed to a different extent by cells varying in their metabolic rate. PET scans are especially useful for brain imaging studies and are used to illustrate the differences between brains of people without mental disorders and brains of people with mental disorders. For example, because PET scans can detect brain activity, PET scans of the brains of depressed and non-depressed persons can show researchers where brain activity is decreased in depressed patients. Similar scans have been taken of brains affected by schizophrenia or Alzheimer's disease . Such research can help scientists discover new ways to treat these disorders.

Single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT)

Single photon emission computerized tomography is used in research, and in diagnosing brain disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. As of 2002, research for Parkinson's disease at Harvard, for example, in the Division of Neurochemistry is focused on the diagnosis of the disease before motor control is compromised signalling the advancing degeneration. It uses a radio-labeled compound that targets key proteins responsible for regulating brain dopamine levels to determine neural changes before problems with motor symptoms begin to occur. This research is also being used to improve PET imaging in the diagnosis and consequent treatment of these neurological disorders.

Resources

BOOKS

Seeram, E. Computed Tomography: Physical Principles, Clinical Applications and Quality Control. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders and Co., 2001.

von Schulthess, G. K., ed. Clinical Positron Emission Tomography. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 1999.

Westbrook, C. Handbook of MRI Techniques. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, 1999.

OTHER

Alzheimer Society of British Columbia. "What is Alzheimer Disease?" (cited June 2002) <http://www.alzheimerbc.org/>.

Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, ldquo;Parkinson's Disease.rdquo; (cited June 2002) <http://www.hms.harvard.edu/nerprc/parkinson/>.

Monique Laberge, Ph.D.