Serbia
Serbia
CAPITAL: Belgrade
FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of blue, white, and red horizontal stripes, with Serbia’s coat of arms superimposed to the left of center of the flag.
ANTHEM: Boze Pravde (God of Justice)
MONETARY UNIT: The new dinar (jd) replaced the dinar on 24 January 1994. jd1 = $0.01499 (or $1 = jd66.68973; as of 2 June 2006).
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is in force.
HOLIDAYS: New Year’s Day, 1 and 2 January; Orthodox Christmas, 7 January; Orthodox New Year, 13 January; Unification of Serbia, 28 March; FR Yugoslavia Day, 27 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Victory Day, 9 May; St. Vitus Day, 28 June; Serbian Uprising, 7 July.
TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.
1 Location and Size
Serbia is located on the central part of the Balkan Peninsula. The total area is approximately 88,361 square kilometers (34,116 square miles). The entire country is about the size of Maine. The total land boundary length is 2,027 kilometers (1,259 miles). Serbia’s capital is Belgrade, located in north central Serbia.
2 Topography
Rich fertile plains are found in the Serbian north, while in the east there are limestone ranges and basins. Nearly half of Serbia is mountainous. The highest point is Daravica, in the North Albanian Alps, at 2,656 meters (8,714 feet). Of its mountains, 15 reach heights of over 2,000 meters (6,600 feet).
The Danube is the longest river. It has a total length of 2,783 kilometers (1,729 miles). About 588 kilometers (365 miles) of the Danube flow from west to east through the northern region of Serbia. The Tisa, Sava and Morava rivers are major tributaries of the Danube.
There are several fault lines running through the country which are seismically active. Earth tremors are fairly common and destructive earthquakes have occurred.
GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE
Geographic Features
Area: 88,361 sq km (34,116 sq mi)
Size ranking: 110 of 194
Highest elevation: 2,656 meters (8,714 feet) at Daravica
Lowest elevation:
Land Use*
Arable land: n.a.
Permanent crops: n.a.
Other: n.a.
Weather**
Average annual precipitation: 70.1 centimeters (27.6 inches)
Average temperature in January: -0.2°c (31.6°f)
Average temperature in July: 22.6°c (72.7°f)
* Arable Land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses.
Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards.
Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.
** The measurements for precipitation and average temperatures were taken at weather stations closest to the country’s largest city.
Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.
3 Climate
In the north, winters are cold and summers are hot and humid. In the central and southern regions, the climate is more continental. Annual precipitation varies across the country, from 56 to 190 centimeters (22 to 75 inches).
4 Plants and Animals
The forests of Serbia contain some 170 broadleaf species of trees and shrubs, along with about 35 coniferous species. The animals found in Serbia include types of hare, pheasant, deer, stag, wild boar, fox, chamois, mouflon, crane, duck, and goose.
5 Environment
Industrial wastes are dumped into the Sava, which flows into the Danube. Air pollution is a problem around Belgrade and other industrial cities. Thermal energy plants use technology from the 1950s and mostly burn lignite. Air pollution is a major problem in the southern region of Kosovo. Destructive earthquakes are a natural hazard.
There are four Wetlands of International Importance in Serbia and three World Heritage Sites featuring historic monasteries and other medieval structures. Threatened species include Atlantic sturgeon, slender-billed curlew, black vultures, asps, bald ibis, Danube salmon, several species of shark, the red wood ant, and the beluga whale. At least one type of mollusk has become extinct.
6 Population
The population of Serbia according to the 2002 census was 9,296,411. The capital city, Belgrade, had a population of 1,576,124 in 2002.
7 Migration
The following information on migration pertains to the union of Serbia and Montenegro based on statistics gathered prior to Montenegro’s independence in 2006. The breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s and the ethnic hostilities that came in its aftermath resulted in enormous migrations to and from its various former republics. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 626,000. By the end of 2004, these numbers were still rising. In 2004, more than 204,000 Serbs and Montenegrins were refugees in Germany, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, France, and Australia. Also, in that same year more than 29,000 Serbs and Montenegrins sought asylum in 18 countries primarily in Europe, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
In 2005 the estimated net migration rate was-1.3 migrants per 1,000 population.
8 Ethnic Groups
There are 37 different ethnicities in Serbia, but Serbs are the main ethnic group, at about 66%. Albanians, at 17%, are concentrated in the Kosovo region of southwest Serbia. Hungarians make up about 3.5% of the population and live in northern Serbia near the Hungarian border. The remaining population consists mainly of Slavic Muslims, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Macedonians, Croats, Roma, Montenegrins, Ruthenians, Romanians, Vlachs, Bunjevci, and Turks.
9 Languages
Serbian is the official language. More than 95% of the population speaks Serbian. Albanian accounts for the remaining 5%. The script in official use is Cyrillic, while the Latin script is also used. In the areas where ethnic minorities live, the languages and scripts of the minorities are in official use.
10 Religions
There is no state religion. About 78% of the total population of the union of Serbia and Montenegro prior to Montenegro’s independence in 2006 were Serbian Orthodox. Muslims accounted for 5% of the total population, Roman Catholics for 4%, and Protestants 1%. Protestant denominations include Baptists, Adventists, Reformed Christians, Evangelical Christians, Evangelical Methodists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Church of Christ, Mormons, and Pentecostals. There is a small Jewish community in the country. In Kosovo, Islam is the dominant religion, but the people in Kosovo of Serb descent are generally Serbian Orthodox.
11 Transportation
In 2002, Serbia had 3,619 kilometers (2,248.8 miles) of railroads. Railways connect Belgrade with Budapest and Zagreb. The Belgrade-Bar line links Serbia to Montenegro and ends at the Adriatic Sea.
In 2002, there were 42,692 kilometers (26,528.8 miles) of asphalt-paved roads in Serbia. There were 24,860 kilometers (15,448 miles) of concrete-paved roads.
The Danube, Sava, and Tisa are important commercial rivers, with ports at Belgrade, Novi Sad, Sabac, Pancevo, Smederevo, and Prahovo.
There were 43 airports in Serbia in 2004. As of 2005, half of them had paved runways, and there were also four heliports. Yugoslav Aero Transport (YAT) operates from Belgrade. In 2003, there were approximately 1.3 million passengers on scheduled domestic and international flights in the union of Serbia and Montenegro.
12 History
The Serbs, one of the large family of Slavic nations, first began settling in the Balkans around the 7th century in the areas now known as Bosnia, Kosovo, and Montenegro. Serbs have a Sarmatian (Iranian) origin. The Serbs organized several principalities made up of a number of clans headed by leaders known as zupans. Both the Byzantine Empire and the Bulgars tried to conquer them, but without success.
Between the 9th and 12th centuries, several Serbian principalities evolved. These included Raška and Zeta, whose ruler Mihajlo (Michael) was anointed king by Pope Gregory VII in 1077.
The medieval Serbian empire was ruled by Stephen Dušan the Mighty (1331–55). It extended from the Aegean Sea to the Danube (Belgrade). The Serbian Empires controlled Macedonia, Thessaly, the Epirus, and Albania. The Serbian Church obtained its own patriarchate (region controlled by a high-ranking church official who was almost as revered as the pope), with its center in Pe?.
Serbia became an exporting land with abundant crops and minerals. Dušan was crowned tsar of “the Serbs and Greeks” in 1346. He gave Serbia its first code of laws. His attempt to conquer the throne of Byzantium failed, however, when the Byzantines called on the Ottoman Turks for help in 1345. Even though Dušan withstood the attacks from the Turks twice, the gates to Europe had been opened. The Ottoman Turks had started their campaign to conquer the Balkans.
Under Ottoman Rule Dušan’s heirs could not hold his empire together against the Turks. The defeat of the Serbs in a famous battle at Kosovo Polje in 1389 left Serbia open to further Turkish conquest. Following a series of wars, the Turks succeeded in overtaking Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 1453 and all of Serbia by 1459. For the next 350 years, Serbs and others had to learn how to survive under Ottoman rule.
The Turks did not make any distinctions based on ethnicity, but only on religion. Turkish Muslims were the dominant class while Christians and Jews were of a lower class. Christian boys between the age of eight and twenty were forcibly taken from their families to be converted to Islam and trained as “Janissaries” (government administrators). Some of these former Christians became administrators and even became grand viziers (advisers) to sultans.
Two distinct cultures lived side by side—Turkish Muslims in cities and towns and Christian Orthodox in the countryside of Serbia. The many Serbian monasteries built around the country became the supportive network for Serbian survival.
Serbs Living Abroad Over the next two centuries (1459–1659) many Serbs left their lands and settled north of the Sava and Danube rivers. The region is called “Vojvodina” by Serbs.
The wars between Austria and the Turks in the late 17th through the mid-18th centuries caused both mass migrations from Serbia and the hardening of Ottoman treatment of their Christian subjects.
The Turks were defeated in 1683 at the gates of Vienna, Austria. The Christian armies pursued the Turks all the way to Macedonia and had a good chance to drive the Turks off the European continent. The Turks retaliated, and many Serbs fled. This left Serbian lands, particularly Kosovo, unpopulated. Albanians, whom the Turks favored because they were mostly Muslims, moved in. Conversions to Islam increased.
The Serbs, who held deep emotional attachments to the Kosovo region, could not bear to give up control over the area. Even though they represented only about 10% of the population of Kosovo, tension and conflict between Serbs and Albanians in Kosovo continued into the 21st century.
Serbian Revolts and Independence Meanwhile, two areas of active Serbian national activity developed, one under the Turks in the northern ?umadija region and the other in Hungary. ?umadija, a forested region, became the refuge for many hajduks (Serbian “Robin Hoods”) that raided Turkish establishments. These hajduks were legendary heroes among the Serbian people.
In 1805, the Serbs defeated the Turks and gained control of the region around Belgrade. A Serb uprising occurred in 1815. It was led by Miloš Obrenovi?, who gained the support of the Russian tsar. By 1830, Serbia had gained its full autonomy and Obrenovi? was recognized as a hereditary prince of Serbia. Serbia was internationally accepted as an independent state.
Miloš Obrenovi? was an authoritarian ruler. He had to be forced to create a constitution for Serbia. A council of chiefs was established to share power with him. A succession of rulers was installed and deposed over the next decade.
Miloš Obrenovi? died in 1860. He was succeeded, first by his son Mihajlo and then by his nephew, Milan. Milan Obrenovi? abdicated in 1889 in favor of his son, Alexander, who abolished the constitution. Alexander led a corrupt and scandalous life and was eventually murdered in June 1903. The assembly then called on Peter, Alexander’s son, to take the crown.
The Balkan Wars Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The Serbs saw Austria’s move as a serious blow to their goal of a Greater Serbia with an outlet to the Adriatic Sea through Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The Balkan countries (Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece) formed the Balkan League and attacked Turkey in 1912. The Balkan League quickly defeated the Turks and drove them to the gates of Constantinople.
Austria and Italy opposed a Serbian outlet to the sea in Albania. Serbia requested help from Bulgaria. Bulgaria responded by attacking Serbia and Greece, hoping to obtain all of Macedonia. The resulting second Balkan War ended with the defeat of Bulgaria by Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Romania, and Turkey.
Austria feared Serbian expansion. The Austro Hungarians felt Serbia had to be restrained by whatever means, including war. They needed only a spark to ignite a conflict against the Serbs.
World War I and Royal Yugoslavia The spark was provided on 28 June 1914. Austria’s Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were murdered by a Serbian man in Sarajevo. Austria declared war on Serbia that day, and began bombing Belgrade.
The Serbian army twice repelled the Austrian forces in 1914, with tremendous losses in men and civilian refugees. In addition, a typhus epidemic killed many Serbs. Still, the Serbs were successful in driving the Austrian forces out of Serbia in October 1918. On 20 October 1918, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson declared his support for the independence of all the people of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.
The armistice ending World War I was signed on 3 November 1918. A Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was proclaimed on 1 December 1918. A constitution was approved on 28 June 1921. King Alexander abrogated the constitution in 1929, dissolved the parliament and political parties, took over power directly, renamed the country “Yugoslavia,” and abolished the 33 administrative departments.
A new policy was begun with the goal of creating a single “Yugoslav” nation out of the three “tribes” of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. This meant the Serbian king would dominate the rest of the nation. The reaction was intense, and King Alexander himself was assassinated in 1934. Alexander’s cousin, Prince Paul, assumed power and managed to reach an agreement in
1939 with the Croats. Prince Paul’s government was deposed on 27 March 1941 and Germany’s Adolph Hitler and his allies (Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria) attacked Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941.
World War II Yugoslavia was divided up and occupied by Germany and its allies. In Serbia the resistance was led by the “Cetniks,” the “Yugoslav army in the homeland.” The Cetniks recognized the authority of the Yugoslav government-in-exile. Josip Broz Tito led the Communist partisan movement. Tito’s goal was to conquer Yugoslavia for Communism.
British leader Winston Churchill decided to recognize Tito as the leader of the Yugoslav resistance. Soviet armies, accompanied by Tito, entered Yugoslavia from Romania and Bulgaria in the fall of 1944. After the end of the war, the Communist-led forces took control of Serbia and Yugoslavia and instituted a violent dictatorship that committed crimes and violated human rights. Thousands of their former opponents who were returned from Austria by British military authorities were tortured and massacred.
Communist Yugoslavia Such was the background for the formation of the second Yugoslavia as a Federative People’s Republic of five nations (Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, Montenegrins) with their individual republics and Bosnia and Herzegovina as a buffer area. The problem of large Hungarian and Muslim Albanian populations in Serbia was solved by creating for them the region of Vojvodina (Hungarian minority) and Kosovo (Muslim Albanian majority.
Tito attempted to satisfy most of the nationality issues that were carried over, unresolved, from the first Yugoslavia. However, he failed to satisfy anyone. The Marxist Yugoslav regime thought that national rivalries and conflicting interests would gradually diminish through their incorporation into a new Socialist order. Without capitalism, nationalism was supposed to wither away.
The elections of 11 November 1945 gave the Communist-led People’s Front 90% of the vote. An assembly met on 29 November, abolished the monarchy and established the Federative People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. In January 1946, a new constitution was adopted.
Yugoslavia was forced to find its own road to Socialism, balancing its position between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance and the Soviet bloc of Communist countries. Tito quickly nationalized the economy through a policy of forced industrialization, supported by the collectivization of the agriculture. The peasants were against it. Collectivization was begun in 1949 but had to be abandoned by 1958.
By the 1950s, Yugoslavia had started self-management of businesses through workers councils and local decision-making. There was a period of very rapid industrial growth in the 1950s. However, there was an economic crisis in 1961, leading to the introduction of market socialism in 1965. Unemployment grew. The government responded by relaxing restrictions on labor migration particularly to West Germany.
Yugoslavia began to develop a foreign policy independent of the Soviet Union. Tito intensified his commitment to the movement of nonaligned “third world” nations. Tito drew on economic and political support from the Western powers while neutralizing any aggression from the Soviet bloc. Tito condemned all Soviet aggression. Just before his death on 4 May 1980, Tito condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In the 1970s and 1980s, Yugoslavia maintained fairly good relations with its neighboring states.
Slobodan Miloševi? became the head of the Communist Party in Serbia in 1987. He was an ardent advocate of the Serbs in Kosovo. The League of Communists of Yugoslavia met in January 1990 to review proposed reforms.
Yugoslavia’s Dissolution In October 1990, Slovenia and Croatia published a joint proposal for a confederation of Yugoslavia. This did not work. Slovenia declared its independence on 25 June 1991. On 27 June, the Yugoslav army tried to seize control of Slovenia. The Slovenian “territorial guards” surrounded Yugoslav army tank units, isolated them, and engaged in close combat along border checkpoints. Over 3,200 Yugoslav army soldiers surrendered, and the Slovenes had the prisoners call their parents all over Yugoslavia to come to Slovenia and take their sons back home. The European Community negotiated a cease-fire.
The collapse of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989 had a deep impact in Yugoslavia. Communist leaders there realized that, in order to stay in power, they needed to embrace the goals of nationalistic movements. In Serbia and Montenegro, the Communists won on 9 December 1990 on the basis of their strong Serbian nationalism. In its last years, Yugoslavia became a house divided, prompting the parliament of Slovenia to pass a resolution on 20 February 1991 proposing the division of Yugoslavia into two separate states.
Suppression of Kosovo and Revolt in Croatia On 2 July 1990, Albanian members of the Yugoslav legislature declared Kosovo a separate territory within the Yugoslav federation. In August 1990, an open Serb revolt against the Croatian government was started with the support of Slobodan Miloševi?. On 17 March 1991, Miloševi? declared that Krajina, a region in Croatia, was a Serbian autonomous region.
The Serbian determination to maintain a united Yugoslavia hardened, while the determination of the Slovenes and Croats to gain their independence grew stronger. The new constitution created by Serbia in September 1990 eliminated autonomy for Vojvodina and Kosovo. The first elections were held on 9 December 1990. Slobodan Miloševi?’s Socialist Party of Serbia received two-thirds of the votes. Miloševi? had complete control of Serbia.
On 3 June 1991 Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia proposed the formation of a Community of Yugoslav Republics as a compromise. But it was too late. The international community stood firmly in support of the preservation of Yugoslavia.
Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence on 25 June 1991. Miloševi? and the Serbian leadership concentrated on the goal of uniting all Serbian lands to Serbia. War broke out. A cease-fire was called on 3 January 1992. UN peacekeepers were stationed by March 1992 to separate the Serb-controlled areas from Croatian army and other forces. Miloševi? was confident that the UN forces would protect the Serb-occupied territories from the Croats.
Aggression in Bosnia and Herzegovina In the meantime, a far worse situation was developing in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following the deployment in Croatia of UN peacekeepers, the Yugoslav army moved into Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence in February 1992. Miloševi?’s goal of unifying all Serbian lands would become impossible with an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. Therefore, Bosnian Serbs abstained from voting, while 64% of eligible voters approved of an independent Bosnia and Herzegovina by an almost unanimous 99.7%.
International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina came on 6 April 1992. On 1 March 1992 a Serbian wedding party was attacked in the Muslim section of Sarajevo. This was the spark that ignited the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbs pounded Sarajevo for two years, reducing it to rubble. They took control of two-thirds of the territory, and carried out ferocious “ethnic cleansing” of Muslims in areas they intended to add to their own.
Serbia and Montenegro formed their own Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 27 April 1992. Despite the lack of international support, Miloševi? was elected president in December. Inflation, unemployment, and savage corruption convinced Miloševi? to support the various plans for bringing about peace to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Yugoslavia faced serious internal political problems in addition to its ruined economy. These included the tradition of independence in Montenegro, the Albanian majority in Kosovo, the Hungarians in Vojvodina, and independent Macedonia.
The Ongoing Conflict The quest to create a “Greater Serbia”—that is, to unite all Serbs under a single Serbian government—resulted in continued fighting, particularly in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Over 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys were executed at Srebrenica in July 1995. On 8 September 1995, the leaders of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina agreed on a new governmental structure for Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In October 1995, Bosnia and Herzegovina accused the Bosnian Serbs of war crimes. Pressured by air strikes and diplomacy, Serb authorities joined leaders from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia on 31 October 1995 in Dayton, Ohio, for a round of peace talks sponsored by the United States. On 21 November 1995, the three presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia finally agreed to terms that would end the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The agreement called for 60,000 UN peacekeepers.
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia at The Hague set out to find and prosecute Serbian soldiers accused of atrocities. In March 1996, a demonstration in Belgrade brought out 20,000 protestors against the Miloševi? regime. Opponents charged his regime with starting the Bosnian conflict and devastating the Serbian economy. In December, Miloševi? shut down Belgrade’s independent radio station. Thousands of protesters met in the streets of Belgrade, hoping to topple him. In February 1997, Miloševi? agreed to recognize the results of the previous local elections, in which opposition parties won majorities in 14 of Serbia’s 19 largest cities. In July 1997, Miloševi? was appointed to the presidency of Yugoslavia by the federal parliament, allowing him to maintain control for another four years.
During March of 1999, Albanian moderates and representatives of the Yugoslav government held talks. They came up with a plan to give Kosovo back its autonomy. The Serbs refused to sign the accord. Hostilities continued. Beginning 24 March 1999 NATO forces bombed Serbia and Kosovo, in an attempt to check human rights violations and end fighting. Fears ran high that other European nations would get involved in the conflict and take sides, resulting in a third world war. Russia disagreed with the NATO bombing runs, attempting its own peace process. NATO and European Union forces assumed control of Kosovo once the fighting had ended.
On 29 June 1999, 10,000 Serbian protestors gathered to demand the resignation of Miloševi?. In August, more than 100,000 Serbians called for an end to his rule in a march on Belgrade. The next regular presidential elections were set for 2001. Miloševi? called presidential elections early, for 24 September 2000; most believed that they would be rigged in his favor, and were planning to boycott the elections.
Miloševi? banned international observers from the process of monitoring the elections. The opposition to Miloševi? was strong, and a crowd of 150,000 turned out for the final pre-election rally against him. The opposition claimed victory in the election, with Vojislav Kostunica proclaiming himself the “people’s president.”
On 27 September, 250,000 people took to the streets to demand that Miloševi? step down.
BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE
Name: Boris Tadic
Position: President of a republic
Took Office: 11 July 2004
Birthdate: 15 January 1958
Education: University of Belgrade
Spouse: Married
Children: Two children
Of interest: Tadic is a trained psychologist. He is the first Serbian president to meet the pope. He raised the Serbian flag at the United Nations after Montenegro declared its independence in 2006.
By 2 October, protesters had called a general strike, were blocking Belgrade’s main streets and had caused a halt to economic activity in other Yugoslav cities. On 4 October 2000, the Constitutional Court annulled the election results and ruled that Miloševi? should serve out his last term in office. Tens of thousands of opposition supporters stormed and burned the parliament building on 5 October and captured the state television service. Police joined the crowds. Kostunica told approximately 500,000 supporters at a rally in Belgrade that Serbia had been liberated. On 6 October, Miloševi? conceded defeat, and Kostunica was sworn in as president on 7 October. Miloševi? was indicted for atrocities in Kosovo by the UN war crimes tribunal in The Hague.
On 1 April 2001, Miloševi? was arrested at his home in Belgrade after a tense standoff in which shots were fired. He had been charged with corruption and abuse of power within Yugoslavia. Miloševi? was formerly indicted by the tribunal in May 1999 for alleged war crimes in Kosovo. Other indictments later included war crimes carried out in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, including charges of genocide carried out in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992–95. This was the first time a sitting head of state had been charged with war crimes. Miloševi?’s trial at The Hague began in February 2002. Miloševi? died of a heart attack in prison in The Hague on 11 March 2006.
Serbia and Montenegro On 14 March 2002, Serbia and Montenegro agreed to create a loose federation called “Serbia and Montenegro.” Both republics would share defense and foreign policies, but would maintain separate economies, currencies, and customs services. Each republic would have its own parliament with a central 126-member parliament located in Belgrade. Kosovo, which remained under UN administration, remained part of Serbia. This angered many Kosovo activists. The parliament of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia voted to disband itself on 4 February 2003, dissolving the country and introducing the new state of Serbia and Montenegro. Both republics agreed they would be able to hold referendums on full independence in 2006.
Serbian presidential elections were held on 29 September 2002. Kostunica won 66.8% of the votes in the second round of voting. However, voter turnout failed to reach a mandated 50% and the elections were declared to be invalid. On 7 March 2003, Svetozar Marovic was elected the first president of Serbia and Montenegro after Kostunica stepped down as president of the former Yugoslavia. In March 2004 Kostunica was appointed the new prime minister of Serbia. In June 2004, the Serbs got a new president, Boris Tadic.
A referendum on full independence for Montenegro was held on 21 May 2006. The vote was in favor of independence. Serbia became the successor state to the union of Serbia and Montenegro. Serbia inherited legal claim to the UN-administered province of Kosovo.
13 Government
Following the breakup of the union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2006, the Republic of Serbia drafted a new constitution. Serbia has a legislature (National Assembly) of 250 deputies chosen in direct general elections for a period of four years. The deputies in the National Assembly elect the government of the Republic of Serbia. The Serbian government was formed on 3 March 2004 with the appointment of Vojislav Kostunica as the prime minister. Boris Tadic took office as president in July 2004.
Serbia is made up of 29 districts and the city of Belgrade. Each district is, in turn, divided into several municipalities.
14 Political Parties
The Republic of Serbia held parliamentary elections on 28 December 2003. The following political parties won seats in the National Assembly: Serbian Radical Party, 82 seats; Democratic Party of Serbia, 53 (includes candidates of the People’s Democratic Party, the Serbian Liberal Party, and the Serbian Democratic Party); the Democratic Party, 37 (includes candidates from the Civic Alliance of Serbia, Democratic Center, Social Democratic Union, Bosniak Democratic Party of Sandzak, and the Social Liberal Party of Sandzak); the G17 Plus, 34 (including candidates from the Social Democratic Party); the Serbian Renewal Movement, 22; and the Socialist Party of Serbia, 22.
Other minor parties and coalitions which were not represented in the National Assembly include: Together for Tolerance; Democratic Alternative; For National Unity; Otpor; and Independent Serbia.
Yearly Growth Rate
This economic indicator tells by what percent the economy has increased or decreased when compared with the previous year.
15 Judicial System
The judiciary is independent. The Serbian Constitutional Court determines whether Serbian laws, regulations and other enactments are in conformity with the Serbian constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeals. As of 2002, a new intermediate appeals body, the Court of Appeals, became effective. It has jurisdiction over appeals from the municipal and district courts.
There are 30 district courts in Serbia. The 143 municipal courts are the principal first instance courts. There are 16 commercial courts, and their decisions may be appealed to the High Commercial Court, located in Belgrade.
16 Armed Forces
As of 2006, military forces included Serbian Land Forces and Air Force and Air Defense Force. Since Serbia lost its access to the sea when Montenegro became independent, it was unlikely that Serbia would continue to fund a navy. The following statistics on armed forces pertain to the union of Serbia and Montenegro prior to Montenegro’s independence in 2006. Active armed forces numbered approximately 65,300 in 2005, supported by 250,000 reservists. The army had 55,000 active personnel. The navy had 3,800 active personnel, including 900 marines. The air force had 6,500 active members. In addition, military forces from 45 countries were stationed in Serbia and Montenegro as part of the Kosovo Peace Implementation Force. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $706 million.
17 Economy
During the UN economic sanctions that lasted from 1992 to 1995, economic activity was extremely limited. Formal lifting of these sanctions occurred in October 1996. Growth in economic output was estimated at 5.9% in 2005. Inflation grew in 2005 to 15.5%. Unemployment remained unusually high, hovering around 30%. A large number of unemployed people work in the informal economy.
18 Income
Statistics are for Serbia and Montenegro, prior to Montenegro’s 2006 independence. The per capita GDP was estimated at $5,000 in 2005. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.9%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 15.5%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 17% of GDP, industry 25%, and services 58%.
It was estimated that in 1999 about 30% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.
19 Industry
Serbia contributed 35% to the total industrial production of the former Yugoslavia. Between 1989 and 1996, total industrial output fell by 60%. In the mid-1990s, industry accounted for approximately 50% of the country’s GDP.
Principal industries in Serbia include machine building (aircraft, trucks, automobiles, tanks and weapons, electrical equipment, agricultural machinery), metallurgy, textiles, footwear, foodstuffs, appliances, electronics, petroleum products, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
The industrial production growth rate in 2002 was only 1.2%, a sign that the importance of industry in the economy was declining. In 2005, the industry of Serbia and Montenegro made up only 25% of the GDP.
20 Labor
The labor force in the union of Serbia and Montenegro was estimated at 3.22 million in 2005. The unemployment rate in 2005 was estimated at 31.6%, with Kosovo’s unemployment at around 50%.
The minimum employment age is 16 although younger children frequently work on family farms. As of 2005, there was no national minimum wage rate. On average, the full-time monthly wage in the public sector that year was $181, while the average wage in the private sector was $250.
Components of the Economy
This pie chart shows how much of the country’s economy is devoted to agriculture (including forestry, hunting, and fishing), industry, or services.
21 Agriculture
The union of Serbia and Montenegro had 3,717,000 hectares (9,160,000 acres) of arable land in 2003. Serbia historically accounted for 60% of agricultural production. Vojvodina is the major agricultural region. In 2000, 20% of the labor force was engaged in agriculture.
Agriculture contributed an estimated 17% to GDP in 2005. Major crops produced in 2004 (in thousands of tons) were: corn, 6,287; wheat, 2,746; sugar beets, 2,643; potatoes, 1,098; and grapes, 490.
22 Domesticated Animals
In 2005, the livestock population in the union of Serbia and Montenegro included 3,550,000 pigs and hogs, 1,796,600 sheep, 1,230,000 head of cattle, 182,000 goats, 40,000 horses, and 17,464,000 poultry. Total meat production that year was 848,240 tons; milk, 1,852,000 tons. Between 1990 and 1999, total livestock production increased by 1.8%, but during 2002–04 it fell by 5.4% from 1999–2001.
23 Fishing
The total catch in 2003 was 3,665 tons in the union of Serbia and Montenegro, 86% from inland waters. Common carp accounts for much of the inland catch.
24 Forestry
In 2000, estimated forest coverage was 2,887,000 hectares (7,134,000 acres) in the former Yugoslavia. Total roundwood production in the union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2004 was 3,520,000 cubic meters (124.3 billion cubic feet), of which about 75% came from public forests. In 2004, exports of forest products amounted to nearly $139.1 million. Imports amounted to $352.9 million.
25 Mining
Mining in Serbia dates back to the Middle Ages, when silver, gold, and lead were extracted. Serbia produces lead, bauxite, iron ore, copper ore, silver, gold, alumina, magnesium, palladium, platinum, and selenium. Among the industrial minerals produced are asbestos, bentonite, ceramic clay, fire clay, feldspar, pumice, lime, magnesite, mica, kaolin, gypsum, quartz sand, salt, nitrogen, caustic soda, sodium sulfate, sand and gravel, and stone.
26 Foreign Trade
The United Nations imposed sanctions on international trade with Yugoslavia in May 1992 and lifted them in December 1995. In 2004 exports in the union of Serbia and Montenegro reached $3.2 billion. In the same year, imports were almost triple that amount, at $9.5 billion. Most of the imports were machinery and transport equipment, fuels and lubricants, manufactured goods, chemicals, food and live animals, and raw materials. The imports mainly came from Germany (18.5%), Italy (16.5%), Austria (8.3%), Slovenia (6.7%), Bulgaria (4.7%), and France (4.5%). Exports included manufactured goods, food and live animals, and raw materials, and largely went to Italy (which receive 29% of total exports), Germany (16.6%), Austria (7%), Greece (6.7%), France (4.9%), and Slovenia (4.1%).
27 Energy and Power
Electric power production in 2002 amounted to 31.696 billion kilowatt hours, of which 67% was thermal and 33% hydroelectric. Serbia is the only Balkan country with large coal deposits. Proven reserves of coal as of 1999 totaled 18.2 billion tons. Total coal production in 2002 was 39,568,000 short tons.
Serbia has limited proven reserves of oil and natural gas. As of 1 January 2002, these reserves totaled 38.75 million barrels of oil and 24.07 billion cubic meters of natural gas. Production of crude oil in the union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2002 averaged 14,000 barrels per day. Refined petroleum product output in that year averaged 53,000 barrels per day. Natural gas production totaled 22.95 billion cubic feet in 2002.
28 Social Development
A social insurance system provides old age, disability, and survivorship benefits. Workers’ compensation, unemployment benefits, and family allowances are also available.
Traditional gender roles keep women from enjoying equal status with men and few occupy positions of leadership in private business. However, women are active in human rights and political organizations.
29 Health
The government provides health care to its citizens. There were 228 health institutions and about 3,000 other clinics, mostly private in Serbia and Montenegro in the mid-2000s. As of 2004, there were an estimated 20 physicians per 100,000 people. The University Clinical Center in Belgrade conducts about nine million examinations and 46,000 emergency operations per year and functions as one of the World Health Organization’s largest medical centers.
Average life expectancy in 2005 in the union was 74.73 years. As of 2004, there were approximately 10,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.
30 Housing
At the beginning of 1996, the former Yugoslavia had 3,124,000 dwellings, with an average of 3.4 persons per dwelling. According to a 1999 assessment, it was estimated that about 120,000 dwellings were damaged or destroyed in Kosovo due to internal conflicts. About 50,000 homes had been damaged in Serbia. Overcrowding, particularly in urban areas, has become more of a problem as Serbian refugees have returned from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2002, the nation counted about 2,790,411 households with an average of 2.89 people per household.
31 Education
School attendance is compulsory for nine years of primary school. This may be followed by three years of secondary school, with students having the option to attend general, vocational, or art schools. In 2001, about 43% of children between the ages of three and six in the union of Serbia and Montenegro were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2001 was estimated at about 96%. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 82%. It is estimated that about 96% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 20 to 1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 14 to 1.
Serbia has six universities (at Belgrade, Novi Sad, Pristina, Nis, and Kragujevac). In 2001, about 36% of the post-secondary age population was enrolled in higher education. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 96.4%.
32 Media
In 2003, there were an estimated 243 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people in the union of Serbia and Montenegro; about 313,500 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 338 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.
In Serbia and Montenegro, only the RTS television network was owned by the state; the other six (BK, TV Studio Spectrum ?a?ak, Kanal 9 Kragujevac, Pink, Palma, and Art Kanal) are privately owned. In 2004, Serbia and Montenegro had about 297 radios and 282 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 27.1 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 79 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.
In 1791, the first Serbian-language newspaper was published in Vienna, Austria. The dailies with the largest circulation (as of 2002) are Politika (Politics, 300,000) and Vecernje Novosti (Evening News, 169,000). Other newspapers include (with 2002 circulation) Borba (85,000), Jedinstvo (6,090), Dnevnik (61,000), and Pobjeda (19,400). There are several minority language newspapers.
33 Tourism and Recreation
Rich architecture, museums, galleries, cathedrals, parks, and rivers, are just some of the attractions that bring visitors to Serbia. The largest two of Serbia’s five national parks are Djerdap and Sar planina. Serbia has dozens of spa resorts such as Vrnjacka Banja, Mataruska Banja, and Niska Banja. Serbia has three UNESCO heritage sites. Popular sports in Serbia are rafting, hunting, fishing, skiing, and cycling.
In 2003, about 1.4 million tourists arrived in Serbia and Montenegro, of whom 93% came from Europe. There were 2,435 hotel rooms with 4,926 beds.
34 Famous Serbs
Sava Rastko Nemanjic (c. 1174–1235) was the first Serbian archbishop and a writer who became one of Serbia’s most prominent figures of the Middle Ages. Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic (1787–1864) reformed the Serbian language by clarifying grammar, standardizing the spelling, and compiling a dictionary. Dositej Obradovic (1742–1811) was a famous writer, philosopher, and teacher.
Djordje Petrovic Karadjordje (1768–1817) led a rebellion against the Turks in 1804. Zivojin Misic (1855–1921) was a distinguished military leader during World War I. Prince Miloš Obrenovi? (reigned 1815–39) founded the Obrenovi? dynasty and ruled Serbia as an absolute monarch. King Alexander of Yugoslavia (1888–1934) was assassinated in Marseille, France. Prince Paul of Yugoslavia (1893–1976) ruled as a regent for Peter II (1923–1970) from 1934 to 1941 and was forced into exile after signing a secret pact with the Nazi government.
Slobodan Miloševi? (1941–2006) was elected president of Serbia in 1990 and 1992 before being elected president of Yugoslavia in July 1997. He came before the UN’s International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in 2002 for genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, and died of a heart attack in his cell just months before the trial was due to end.
Ibrahim Rugova (1944–2006) was president of Kosovo and its leading political party, the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK). During the many conflicts in Kosovo, Rugova was regarded as a moderate ethnic Albanian leader, and later by some as “Father of the Nation.”
Ivo Andri? (1892–1975) received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1961. Danilo Kiš (1935–1989) established his reputation with his work A Tomb for Boris Davidovich (1976). Other notable Serbian authors include Meša Selimovi?, Miloš Crnjanski, Milorad Pavi?, Dobrica ?osi? and David Albahari. Anastas Jovanovi? (1817–1899) was a pioneering photographer. Kirilo Kutlik set up the first school of art in Serbia in 1895. Nadežda Petrovi? (1873–1915) was influenced by Fauvism while Suva ?umanovi? worked in Cubism. Other Serbian artists include Milan Konjovi?, Marko ?elebonovi?, Petar Lubarda, Milo Milunovi?, and Vladimir Veli?kovi?.
35 Bibliography
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Frucht, Richard (ed.). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2005.
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Klemencic, Matjaz. The Former Yugoslavia’s Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook. Oxford, Eng.: ABC-Clio, 2003.
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