SENEGAL

Republic of Senegal

République du Sénégal

CAPITAL: Dakar

FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of green, yellow, and red vertical stripes; at the center of the yellow stripe is a green star.

ANTHEM: Begins "Pincez, tous, vos koras, frappez les balafons" ("Pluck your koras, strike the balafons").

MONETARY UNIT: The Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr) is the national currency. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 CFA francs, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 CFA francs. CFA Fr1 = $0.00191 (or $1 = CFA Fr522.78) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 4 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Day of Association, 14 July; Assumption, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', Milad an-Nabi, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Ascension, and Pentecost Monday.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the western bulge of Africa, Senegal has a land area of 196,190 sq km (75,749 sq mi), extending 690 km (429 mi) se–nw and 406 km (252 mi) ne–sw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Senegal is slightly smaller than the state of South Dakota. It is bordered on the n and ne by Mauritania, on the e by Mali, on the s by Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, and on the w by the Atlantic Ocean. Its westernmost point is also that of the African mainland. On the ne the boundary is set by the Senegal River, and on the e by the Falémé River. Senegal surrounds the long, narrow Republic of The Gambia on three sides. The total boundary length of Senegal is 3,171 km (1,970 mi), of which 531 km (330 mi) is coastline.

Senegal's capital city, Dakar, is located on the Atlantic coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The northern part of the Senegal coast has dunes from Cap Vert to Saint-Louis, but to the south are muddy estuaries. Behind the coast is a sandy plain, which extends north to the floodplain of the Senegal River. The Casamance region in the south, isolated from the rest of Senegal by the Republic of The Gambia, is low but more varied in relief, while to the southeast lie the Tamgué foothills, which rise to a maximum altitude of 581 m (1,906 ft). Much of the northwest of Senegal (known as the Ferlo) is semidesert, but the center and most of the south, except for the forest of Casamance, are open savanna country. The major rivers—the Senegal, Saloum, Gambie, and Casamance—flow from east to west.

CLIMATE

Temperatures are lowest along the coast and highest inland; rainfall is highest in the south and lowest in the north. The wet season, which lasts from June to October, is shorter in the north and longer in the south, especially near the southwest coast. The average annual rainfall ranges from 34 cm (13 in) at Podor in the extreme north to 155 cm (61 in) at Ziguinchor, in the southwest. At Dakar, the average is 57 cm (22 in); at Tambacounda, in the interior, it is 94 cm (37 in). Temperatures vary according to the season, with the highest temperatures registered in the northeast. At Dakar, during the cool season (December–April), the average daily maximum is 26°c (79°f) and the average minimum 17°c (63°f); during the hot season (May–November), the averages are 30°c (86°f) and 20°c (68°f).

An unusually heavy season of rain beginning in August 2005 caused severe flooding in Dakar and the surrounding region. At least 50,000 people had to abandon their homes for makeshift shelters. Unsanitary conditions brought about by flood damage sparked a cholera epidemic that affected over 27,000 nationwide; at least 400 people died from the disease.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Vegetation varies in different areas of Senegal, depending on the average rainfall. The most tropical part of southern Casamance has mangrove swamps and remnants of high forest, including oil palms, bamboo, African teak, and the silk-cotton tree. The dry thornland of the northeast has spiny shrubs, especially acacia, including the gum-bearing species. Most of Senegal is savanna. Trees, which are widely spaced in this region, include the African locust bean, tallow tree, and gingerbread plum, along with cassias and acacias.

The lion and leopard are occasionally found in the northeast, as are chimpanzees, elephants, hippopotamuses, and buffalo. The wild pig, hare, guinea fowl, quail, and bustard are widely distributed. Insects and birds are abundant, and there are numerous lizards, snakes, and other reptiles. As of 2002, there were at least 192 species of mammals, 175 species of birds, and over 2,000 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Much of the land is threatened with desertification because of overgrazing, inadequately controlled cutting of forests for fuel, and soil erosion from overcultivation. In 2000, about 32.2% of the total land area was forested. Dakar suffers from such typical urban problems as improper sanitation (especially during the rainy season, when sewers overflow) and air pollution from motor vehicles. The nation has about 26 cu km of renewable water resources with 92% of annual withdrawals used for farming activity and 3% used for industrial purposes. About 90% of the nation's city dwellers and 54% of the people living in rural areas have access to improved water sources. Senegal's cities have produced about 0.6 million tons of solid waste per year. Important environmental agencies include the Ministry of Scientific and Technical Research, which is responsible for coordinating all research and development in Senegal.

Senegal has at least six national parks, covering about 4% of the country's total area; game in forest reserves is classified by law as partially or completely protected, but poaching remains a problem. As of 2003, 11.5% of Senegal's total land area was protected, including four Ramsar wetlands and two natural UNESCO World Heritage Sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 11 types of mammals, 5 species of birds, 6 types of reptiles, 18 species of fish, and 7 species of plants. Threatened species include the western giant eland and four species of turtle (green sea, olive ridley, hawksbill, and leatherback). The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild.

POPULATION

The population of Senegal in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 11,658,000, which placed it at number 71 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 42% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 97 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.6%, a rate the government viewed as too high, although progress has been made in reducing the fertility rate. The projected population for the year 2025 was 17,348,000. The population density was 59 per sq km (153 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 43% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 3.61%. The capital city, Dakar, had a population of 2,167,000 in that year. Other important towns and their estimated populations are Thiès, 340,000; Kaolack, the peanut export center, 191,023; and Saint-Louis, 190,000.

MIGRATION

There is considerable seasonal migration between The Gambia and Senegal in connection with cultivation and harvesting of peanuts. Estimates of the number of Guineans who had fled to Senegal for political reasons ranged from 40,000 to more than 500,000, but all apparently returned after a 1984 military coup in Guinea. Some Senegalese work in France; others have moved to other African countries in search of work, especially to Côte d'Ivoire. Since relations improved between Senegal and Mauritania in 1996, both countries agreed to the return of Mauritanian refugees. Also living in Senegal are some 50,000 French and Lebanese, about a third of whom have Senegalese nationality.

There was a significant increase in the number of Sierra Leonean asylum seekers due to the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone in 1999. Conversely, peace was restored in Guinea Bissau in that year, allowing hundreds of Bissau Guineans who sought refuge in Senegal to return home. In 2000, the number of migrants was 284,000, including 20,000 remaining refugees. Worker remittances for that year amounted to $130 million, or 2.7 GDP. By the end of 2004, there were 20,804 refugees and 2,412 asylum seekers, mainly from Liberia. Refugees were primarily from Mauritania, as they had been since 1994. In 2004, over 7,000 Senagalese were refugees in Guinea-Bissau, and some 900 sought asylum, primarily in Gambia. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated 0.2 per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The largest ethnic group is the Wolof, who make up about 43.3% of the total population; they live mainly in the northwest. The Pular rank as the second-largest group, constituting 23.8% of the population. Closely related to the Wolof are the Serer (14.7%), in west-central Senegal, who are skilled peanut cultivators, and the Lebu, mostly fishermen and farmers, concentrated in the Dakar area.

Other important groups are the Diola of Casamance, making up 3.7% of the populace; the Mandinka, in the southeast and in Casamance, accounting for 3%; the Soninke constituting 1.1%; the Tukulor, who live predominantly in the northeast; and the Fulani (Peul) and Bambara, scattered throughout the country. Europeans and Lebanese make up about 1% of the total population; other various groups constitute the remaining 9.4%.

LANGUAGES

French, the official language, is the language of administration and of the schools. Indigenous languages are also widely spoken, the major ones being Wolof, Pulaar, Diola, and Mandingo.

RELIGIONS

Government reports indicate that about 94% of the people are Muslim, with members of the Tijaniya and Muridiya brotherhoods having great social, political, and economic influence. About 4% of Senegalese are Christians, including Roman Catholics and a number of Protestant denominations. The remaining 2% practice exclusively traditional indigenous religions or no religion at all.

The constitution provides for the freedom of religion and defines the country as a secular state. However, the government does offer grant money to religious organizations through an application process that is open to all. Registration is not required, but most organizations do so in order to obtain full legal status to conduct business. The government encourages and supports Muslim pilgrimages to the Mecca and Catholic pilgrimages to the Vatican. Certain Muslim and Christian holidays are recognized as national holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2004, Senegal had 906 km (562 mi) of railroad, all narrow gauge and all owned by the government. The main lines run from Dakar to Thiès and thence to Kidira on the Mali border, and from Thiès to Saint-Louis. There are also branch lines from Guinguineo to Kaolack, from Louga to Linguère, and from Diourbel to Touba, serving the peanut-growing areas. Of Senegal's estimated 14,576 km (9,058 mi) of classified roads in 2000 (the latest year for which data is available), some 4,271 km (2,654 mi) were paved, including 7 km (4.6 mi) of expressways. There are modern roads from Dakar to Thiès, Saint-Louis, and Matam, and from Dakar to Kaolack and on through The Gambia to Ziguinchor in Casamance. In 2000, there were 70,700 passenger cars and 68,800 commercial vehicles in the combined territory, Senegambia.

Favorably located at the westernmost point of the continent and possessing up-to-date equipment, Dakar is one of the largest deepwater seaports on the West African coast, a major import-export center and a port of call for freight and passenger ships. The port can accommodate ships of up to 100,000 tons. The Senegalese Maritime Navigation Co. (Compagnie Sénégalaise de Navigation Maritime—COSENAM), a river and ocean freight transport line in which the government has an 84% share, was founded in 1979. However, by 2005 there was no Senegalese merchant marine.

The Senegal River, which has a sandbar across its mouth, is navigable by shallow-draft vessels all year round from Saint-Louis to Podor (225 km/140 mi) and between August and October as far as Kayes in Mali (924 km/574 mi). It is closed to foreign ships. The Saloum is navigable by oceangoing vessels to the important peanut port of Kaolack, 114 km (71 mi) upriver. The Casamance River is navigable to Ziguinchor, although not without difficulty. As of 2003, Senegal had 1000 km (622 mi) of internal navigable waterways.

In 2004 there were an estimated 20 airports in Senegal, 9 of which (as of 2005), were paved. Dakar's Yoff International Airport, a West African air center, is served by many foreign airlines. Air France, Air Senegal, and Air Afrique maintain routes connecting Saint-Louis, Thiès, Ziguinchor, Kédougou, Tambacounda, and 10 other towns with secondary air fields. Air Senegal is 50% owned by the government and 40% by Air Afrique, in which Senegal also holds a 7% share. In 2003, about 130,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Very little is known about the history of Senegal before the 16th century. The major feature seems to have been the gradual movement into Senegal of the Wolof and Sérer peoples from the northeast, who reached their present positions between the 10th and 15th centuries ad. At various times parts of Senegal were included in the empires of Tekrur, Ghana, and Mali. At the height of its power at the beginning of the 14th century, Mali controlled the Falémé and Upper Senegal. That century saw the emergence of the Jolof empire, controlling the six Wolof states of Jolof, Kayor, Baol, Walo, Sine, and Salum. In the middle of the 16th century, Kayor revolted and conquered Baol, but the other Wolof states continued to admit a shadowy suzerainty of Jolof. As the power of Kayor and Baol increased toward the end of the 17th century, however, Jolof power declined, probably because it was cut off by those states from access to the sea and European trading. The 18th and early 19th centuries were marked by struggles among the northernmost Wolof states and by sporadic Mauritanian attacks on them.

European activities in Senegal began with the arrival of the Portuguese at the Cap Vert Peninsula and the mouth of the Senegal River in 1444–45. The Portuguese enjoyed a monopoly on trade in slaves and gold until the 17th century, when they were succeeded by the Dutch, who virtually dominated all trade by 1650. The later 17th century brought the beginnings of the Anglo-French rivalry, which dominated the 18th century in Senegal as elsewhere. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, the main trading activities were the export of slaves and of gum arabic. Peanut cultivation by African peasants, the foundation of Senegal's modern economy, began in the mid-19th century.

French rule was confined to the old trading posts of Saint-Louis (founded in 1659), Gorée, and Rufisque until its expansion under the Second Empire, during the governorship of Gen. Louis Faidherbe (1854–65). The French occupation of Senegal was consolidated and extended under the Third Republic during the last three decades of the 19th century. In 1871, Senegal was again allowed to send a deputy to the French parliament, a right that had been abolished under the Second Empire. In the following decade, municipalities on the French model were established in Saint-Louis, Gorée, Dakar, and Rufisque, and only the inhabitants of these towns took part in the elections of the deputy.

Between 1895 and 1904, a series of decrees consolidated eight territories into a French West Africa federation, of which Dakar became the capital. In 1920, a Colonial Council, partly elected by the citizens of the old towns and partly consisting of chiefs from the rest of Senegal, replaced the elected General Council previously established for the four towns. All the elected bodies were suppressed in 1940 but restored at the end of the war, and in 1946 Senegal was given two deputies in the French parliament. Under the constitution of 1946, the franchise was extended and a Territorial Assembly was established in Senegal. Universal suffrage was established in 1957. In 1958, Senegal accepted the new French constitution and became an autonomous republic within the French community.

On 17 January 1959, in Dakar, representatives of French Sudan (now Mali), Senegal, Dahomey (now Benin), and Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) drafted a constitution for a Federation of Mali, but only the assemblies of French Sudan and Senegal ratified it and became members of the federation. The Mali Federation became a sovereign state on 20 June 1960, but conflicting views soon led to its breakup. On 20 August, the Legislative Assembly of Senegal proclaimed Senegal's national independence and announced its withdrawal from the federation. A new republican constitution was adopted on 25 August, and on 5 September, Léopold-Sédar Senghor was elected president and Mamadou Dia became prime minister, in effect retaining a position he had held since 1957.

After an attempt by Dia to avoid a vote of no-confidence in the National Assembly by calling out the national police, the legislature met in special session on 17 December 1962 and overthrew Dia's government by a motion of censure. Dia was arrested, and Senghor was elected by unanimous vote of the deputies as head of government. Less than three months later, the electorate approved a new constitution that abolished the post of prime minister and made the president both chief of state and head of the executive branch. A constitutional amendment in 1970 reestablished the office of prime minister, and Abdou Diouf, former minister of planning and industry, was appointed to the post on 26 February 1970. Dia, in detention since 1962, was released in March 1974 as part of an independence celebration.

Having been reelected president in 1968, 1973, and 1978, Senghor resigned as president at the end of 1980 and was succeeded by Diouf. In the summer of 1981, 2,000 Senegalese troops were sent to The Gambia to put down an attempted military coup there. The Confederation of Senegambia was constituted in February 1982 with Diouf as president. Under the terms of confederation, the two countries pledged to integrate their armed and security forces, form an economic and monetary union, and coordinate foreign policy, communications, and possibly other endeavors. The Senegambia agreement was dissolved on 30 September 1989. Diouf was elected to a full term as president on 27 February 1983, receiving 83.5% of the vote in a five-candidate contest. All parties were guaranteed equal access to the media, but the secret ballot was optional, and independent observers reported widespread electoral irregularities. The office of prime minister—constitutionally regarded as the president's successor—was once again abolished in April 1983.

The ruling Parti Socialiste Sénégalais (PS) was victorious in municipal and rural elections held in November 1984, although 12 of the 15 registered parties boycotted the polls. Diouf liberalized the political process and restructured his administration, making it less corrupt and more efficient. Government advocated modulated reform in the face of reactionary elements in the PS.

In the 1988 national elections, Diouf carried 77% of the vote and the PS took 103 of the 120 seats in the National Assembly. Despite a generally fair election, opposition protests escalated into rioting in Dakar. The city was placed under a three-month state of emergency. Diouf's principal opponent, Maitre Abdoulaye Wade of the Democratic Party, was among those arrested and tried for incitement. Afterwards, Diouf met with Wade and tensions eased.

In April 1989, a nationwide state of emergency was declared and a curfew imposed in Dakar after rioters killed dozens of Mauritanians. Protesters had been enraged by reports of the killing of hundreds of Senegalese in Mauritania. Relations with Mauritania were broken and armed clashes along the border and internal rioting led to the expulsion of most Mauritanians residing in Senegal. Diplomatic relations were reestablished in April 1992 and the northern border along the Senegal River was reopened.

In April 1991, Wade accepted the post of Minister of State in Diouf's cabinet. Diouf appointed Habib Thiam as prime minister on 7 April 1991, who then appointed the Council of Ministers in consultation with President Diouf.

Diouf and PS again won reelection in February 1993. His margin of victory, however, shrank to 58% versus 32% for Wade. The PS took only 84 seats in the May legislative elections and the PDS increased its representation from 17 to 27 seats. The Jappoo Leggeeyal Senegalese Party and the Democratic League won three seats each. Two other parties took the other three seats. Wade and other opponents denounced the elections as fraudulent, though international observers declared them generally free and fair. When the vice president of the Constitutional Court was murdered after the elections were officially certified, Wade and other PDS members were charged in the slaying. He and MPs with parliamentary immunity were later released. Political discontent followed these events and an opposition party demonstration in 1994 left six police officers dead and many civilians injured.

In November 1996, the government initiated a decentralization policy that devolved considerable political and administrative authority to the provinces. In July 1998, it undertook a major reshuffling of ministers and ministerial posts, and in November, it signed a peace accord with Guinea-Bissau that was intended to establish a buffer zone along the southern border. In keeping with the accord, the Senegalese army withdrew its 2,500 troops supporting then president, Joao Bernardo Vieira. Togolese, Gambian and Nigerian soldiers under ECOMOG replaced the Senegalese troops.

Since December 1983, the Movement of Democratic Forces of the Casamance (MFDC) has waged a low–level separatist war against the Senegalese government. The Movement splintered in 1991 and signed peace accords with the Senegalese government in 1991, 1993 and in December 1999 in Banjul. In 1992 and 1995, Senegalese warplanes bombed rebel bases in Guinea-Bissau suspected of providing safe havens and resupply points for the rebels. In March 1996, the two governments reached an accord. President Jammeh of The Gambia, who belongs to the same dominant Diola ethnic group of the Casamance, and officials in Guinea-Bissau have mediated the conflict. Despite Abdoulaye Wade's campaign promises to end the insurgency through negotiations and military means, by June 2003 the fighting continued unabated. A deal reached in December 2004 has held up reasonably; but it could be undermined by in-fighting in the ruling PDS or between groups in the Casamance region.

In January 1999, the PS won highly controversial Senate elections by a landslide taking all 45 elected seats. However, a boycott by the two largest opposition parties undermined the Senate's credibility. The bill to create the Senate had been pushed through by the PS-dominated National Assembly in February 1998, thereby increasing the ruling party's representation. The voting rules also ensured a majority of PS politicians in the electoral college.

In April 2000, Abdoulaye Wade was inaugurated as Senegal's third president. The February–March elections were the first in Senegal's history to result in a change of government. Although Diouf won 41.3% of the vote on the first round, PS defectors Moustapha Niasse (AFP) and Djibo Leyti Ka (URD) threw their support behind Wade to give him 58.5% on the 19 March second round. His victory not only ended 40 years of rule by the Parti Socialiste, but it also ended speculation that Senegal's quasi-democracy was moribund. Using their cell phones, Senegalese youth called in results, which were broadcast by electronic media to prevent fraud.

Wade's record over his first three years in office was mixed. In December 2001, he became head of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest-Africane (UEMOA). In April 2002, Senegal hosted an international conference on the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD). As promised, he has begun building primary schools around the country. However, strikes by postal workers, bank employees, and teachers indicate considerable social unrest owing to unmet wage and benefits demands. The government's delay of local elections in the fall of 2001 and the replacement of elected officials with appointees (délégations spéciales) were widely criticized as antidemocratic.

Wade has also fallen out with some of the young bright stars with whom he rode to power in 2000. One example is Idrissa Seck. As prime minister, Seck claimed to know Wade's vision intimately; so he needed no prodding to work seamlessly with the president. Yet Seck's dismissal in April 2004 seemed questionable. In July 2005, he was arrested for inflating public contracts; when this spurred protests, he was jailed and then charged for undermining state security. Seck's supporters believed however that his travails were all political; that he had become influential in the PDS and announced his candidature for the 2007 presidential elections. All this, they argue, made him a threat to Wade's political ambition. In February 2006, Seck was released from jail after charges against him were dropped.

The Wade government released a poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) within the specified timeframe. It reduced the budget deficit, and improved relations with the IMF.

GOVERNMENT

Under the 1963 constitution, as amended, the president of the republic determines national policy and appoints the prime minister and his council of ministers. As presently constituted, the constitution does not give the president the authority to dissolve the National Assembly or to veto legislation. However, if the National Assembly is requested to reconsider a measure it has enacted, the bill must be passed again by a three-fifths majority before it becomes law. The president also may ask the Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of a proposed law. With the consent of the president of the National Assembly and the Supreme Court, the president of the republic may submit any proposed law to national referendum. In his first two months of office, Abdoulaye Wade created a presidential council to coordinate and to execute policy decisions taken by his council of ministers.

Legislative power is exercised by the 120-member (formerly 140-member) National Assembly, elected to serve five-year terms. The Assembly elects the 16 members of the High Court of Justice from among its ranks. Members of the Council of Ministers may not be Assembly members, and are appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president. The former senate, established in 1998, had 60 members, 48 elected by an electoral college (legislators and local, municipal and regional councilors), and 12 appointed by the president. Major opposition parties boycotted the Senate elections on 24 January 1999, and since 2001 it no longer functions. The next presidential election was due in 2007, and parliamentary elections soon thereafter. Wade seemed certain to run for reelection; and he would have to contend with younger politicians including Idrissas Seck.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Senegal branch of the French Socialist Party (SFIO) won the first postwar elections largely because its leaders constituted the only organized party that had contacts in all parts of the colony. It sought to establish political and juridical equality between French and Senegalese citizens. In 1948, however, its leaders, Ahmadou Lamine-Guèye and Léopold-Sédar Senghor, quarreled. Senghor left the SFIO and founded a new party, the Senegalese Democratic Bloc (Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais—BDS), which was based more in the rural areas than in the old communes, from which Lamine-Guèye derived his political support. The new party emphasized social and economic rather than juridical issues and geared its program closely to peasant interests and grievances. In 1951, it won both Senegalese seats in the French National Assembly and, in 1952, 43 of the 50 seats in Senegal's Territorial Assembly.

In the French National Assembly, Senghor had meanwhile taken a leading part in creating a new parliamentary group, the Overseas Independents (Indépendants d'Outre-Mer—IOM), emphasizing African and colonial problems. It was, however, confronted by another African party, the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain—RDA), founded in October 1946 by African deputies hostile to the provisions of the constitution of 1946 regarding the overseas territories. Although the RDA substantially reduced the number of seats held by the IOM in the French parliament, in Senegal it made no inroads on the two established parties, the BDS and the SFIO.

Senghor and his associate Mamadou Dia secured overwhelming majorities at the parliamentary elections in 1956 and launched a campaign to unite all Senegalese parties. They faced the opposition of Lamine-Guèye, who sponsored a first attempt to create an African Socialist movement loosely associated with the SFIO, and of the RDA leadership, which aimed at bringing about the unity of all parties within the RDA.

In 1956, Senghor's party, the BDS, was reorganized to become the Popular Senegalese Bloc (Bloc Popular Sénégalais), which took a strongly nationalistic stance. In the Territorial Assembly elections in 1957, the first held under complete universal suffrage, it won 47 seats, while the SFIO won only 12. Lamine-Guèye and Senghor were reconciled in 1958 and their respective parties fused in April 1958 to form the Senegalese Progressive Union (Union Progressiste Sénégalaise—UPS). The UPS supported the new French constitution in the referendum of September 1958, and in the elections to the Senegal legislature in 1959 it won all 80 seats. After independence in 1960, the UPS remained the dominant political party. President Senghor was its secretary-general, and the party's National Council was responsible for major national policy decisions. In 1976, the UPS changed its name to the Senegalese Socialist Party (Parti Socialiste Sénégalais—PS), after joining the Socialist International.

There was no legal opposition party from 1966 until 1974, when Abdoulaye Wade obtained permission from Senghor to create the Senegalese Democratic Party (Parti Démocratique Sénégalais—PDS). The PDS won 17 Assembly seats in 1978, compared with 83 for the PS.

In 1981, the constitution, which had restricted the number of political parties to four, was amended to end all restrictions. In 1982, the government amended the electoral law for the legislature so that half the deputies would be elected on a basis of proportional representation, while the remaining members were chosen by direct suffrage. This helped the regime win the 1983 presidential and legislative elections in which Diouf received 83.5% of the votes cast. Presidential and legislative elections held in 1988 were marred by rioting in cities and minor conflicts in rural areas, but Diouf officially received 73.2% of the votes cast.

Seven parties contested the National Assembly elections of 9 May 1993. The PS won 84 seats; the PDS won 27; the Jappoo Leggeeyal ("Let Us Unite") Party and the Democratic League won three seats each; the Independence and Labor Party (PIT) won two seats; and the Senegalese Democratic Union/Renewal party got one.

Although many people have lamented Senegal's "stalled" democratic transition, democrats may be encouraged by the growth of party competition. From 1983 to 1993, the PDS increased its share of representation in the Assembly from 8 to 27 seats, while the number of PS seats declined from 111 to 84. In presidential elections over the same period of time, Abdoulaye Wade's percentage of the vote climbed from 15% to 32%, while Diouf's dropped from 83% to 58%. The number of officially recognized parties in Senegal has gone from one in 1973 to 26 in 1997. From 1978 to 1996, the number of parties contesting legislative elections went from 4 to 14.

In the February–March 2000 presidential elections, eight parties presented candidates. Diouf's PS enjoyed the support of several tiny parties, and a coalition of four parties known as the Convergence Patriotique (CP). The CP comprised the Bloc des Centristes Gainde (BCG) led by Jean-Paul Dais, the Parti Liberal Senegalais (PLS), led by Ousmane Ngom, Serigne Diop's Parti Démocratique Sénégalais-Renovation (PDS-R), and the Parti Africain de l'Indépendence (PAI) of Majmouth Diop. The PAI was once Marxist, while the three others emerged from splits in the PDS. On the other hand, Wade's PDS claimed the backing of the Pole de Gauche, a left-wing coalition of the And-jeff/Parti Africain pour la Démocratie et le Socialisme (AJ/PADS), and the Ligue Démocratique-Mouvement Travail (PIT).

However, the real difference in the outcome of the 19 March second round was the support of Moustapha Niasse (AFP) and to a lesser extent, Djibo Ka (URD), both defectors from the PS who formed their own parties. President Wade's subsequent appointment of Mr. Niasse as his prime minister all but confirmed the belief among Mr. Niasse's supporters that they were voting for a Wade-Niasse ticket. On the first round, Diouf obtained 41%, Wade 30%, Niasse 17%, Ka 7%, with four other candidates picking up the remaining 4% of the vote. Wade's second round alliance gave him an easy victory over Diouf with 58.5% of the vote.

The most recent parliamentary elections were held 29 April 2001 giving Wade's SOPI coalition an overwhelming victory with 89 seats to 11 for the AFP, 10 for the PS, and 10 for other parties. In the municipal and local elections 12 May 2002, Wade's coalition, the Convergence des actions autour du Président en perspective du 21ème siècle (CAP 21) captured a majority of the 433 posts. The opposition joined forces under the Cadre Permanent de Concertation (CPC), which included the Parti de l'indépendence et Travail (PIT), the Parti Socialiste (PS), the Union pour le Renouveau Démocratique (URD), and Alliance des Forces de Progrès (AFP). They attacked the government for failing to privatize the electric utility, for bungling groundnut sector reforms, and for mishandling relations with unions and multilateral lending institutions. The next elections were to be held in 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Senegal's local administrative organization consists of ten regions—Fatick, Kaolack, Kolda, Ziguinchor, Tambacounda, Saint-Louis, Thiès, Diourbel, Louga, and Dakar—each headed by an appointed governor and an elected local assembly. The regions are divided into 28 departments, each headed by a prefect, who is assisted by two special secretaries. The departments in turn are divided into 99 districts (arrondissements ), each headed by a sub-prefect. In rural areas the basic administrative unit is the rural community, usually made up of a group of villages with a total population of about 10,000.

In 1996, the assembly passed a comprehensive decentralization law that devolves significant authorities to lower levels of government for taxation, service delivery, and local management of resources, although implementation has been slow and uneven.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The High Council of the Magistrature, founded in 1960 and headed by the president, determines the constitutionality of laws and international commitments and decides when members of the legislature and the executive have exceeded their authority. A 16member High Court of Justice, founded in 1962 and elected by the National Assembly from among its own members, presides over impeachment proceedings. The Supreme Court, founded in 1960, is made up of members appointed by the president of the republic on the advice of the High Council of the Magistrature. In June 1973, a Court of State Security was set up to deal with political offenses. Criminal cases are essentially subject to French criminal law. Petty offenses are dealt with by justices of the peace in each department; ranked next in the judicial system are courts of first instance in each region. There are assize courts in Dakar, Kaolack, Saint-Louis, and Ziguinchor and a Court of Appeal in Dakar. There is also a military court system and a special court for the repression of the unlawful accumulation of wealth.

The constitution declares the independence of the judiciary, from the executive, the legislature and the armed forces. Judges are appointed by the president after nomination by the minister of justice. In practice, low pay and political ties make magistrates vulnerable to outside pressures.

Criminal defendants are presumed innocent until proven guilty and are afforded public trials, and the right to legal counsel, among other procedural rights. Muslims have the right to choose customary law or civil law for cases involving family inheritance.

The legal system is based on French civil law. In 1992 the Supreme Court was replaced by the Council of State for Administrative Questions, the Constitutional Council, and a Court of Appeals.

ARMED FORCES

Senegal's armed forces totaled 13,620 active personnel in 2005. The Army's 11,900 personnel included nine infantry or armored battalions, one artillery battalion, and one engineering battalion. The Navy had 600 members, whose major units were 10 patrol and two landing craft. The 770-member Air Force had no dedicated combat aircraft. Equipment included fixed wing transport, training and reconnaissance aircraft, and three support and two utility helicopters. There was also a paramilitary force of some 5,000 gendarmerie personnel. In 2005, the defense budget totaled $99.6 million. Senegal supplied troops for service in four UN peacekeeping efforts. France maintains an estimated 1,100 military personnel in Senegal.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Senegal was admitted to the United Nations on 28 September 1960 and is a member of ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, the World Bank, ILO, UNESCO, UNIDO, and the WHO. Senegal was a member of the UN Security Council in 1988–89. Senegal is a member of the ACP Group, the African Development Bank, ECOWAS, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), G-15, G-77, the WTO, the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD), and the African Union. The nation is also a part of the Organization for the Development of the Senegal River (founded in 1975) and the Organization for the Development of the Gambia River (founded in 1978). Senegal remains in the Franc Zone. It was one of the founding governments of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD).

Senegal has sent troops to Côte d'Ivoire as part of an ECOWAS peacekeeping force. The country has also offered support to UN missions and operations in Kosovo (est. 1999), Liberia (est. 2003), Burundi (est. 2004), and the DROC (est. 1999). Senegal is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Senegal is part of the Basel Convention, Conventions on Biological Diversity and Whaling, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Senegal's economy is based on its agricultural sector, primarily peanut production, a modest industrial sector, and a growing services sector. Agriculture and the fishing industry, which employ over 70% of the population and accounts for two-thirds of export revenues; is highly vulnerable to declining rainfall, desertification, and changes in world commodity prices. When the first of a series of droughts struck in the latter part of the 1960s, the economy deteriorated rapidly. As of 2005, 45 years after achieving independence, Senegal's resource-poor economy remained fragile and dependent upon foreign donors for continued viability. The country became eligible in 2000 for $800 million in debt relief from the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.

In 1979 Senegal began a long term structural adjustment program under the direction of the World Bank, the IMF, and bilateral donors. The program was aimed at reducing government deficits, the rate of inflation, and the negative trade balance. The government carried out a major program of privatization of the parastatal enterprises, reducing or eliminating its holdings in 30 of the approximately 40 institutions targeted. Some success was realized and from 1991 to 1992 the economy grew 2.5% on average in real terms. However, due to depressed economic conditions, low world prices for its exports, and its lack of international competitiveness, Senegal failed to meet most of its 1992 structural adjustment targets. Consequently, the country sank deeper into debt and low or no growth was predicted for 1993. In February 1993 President Diouf was reelected for a seven-year term, and his socialist party won a large majority of the legislative seats later that year. In deference to the labor unions and a possibility of political unrest, the government's 1993 budget failed to cut civil service wages. In addition, implementation of legislation to allow employers more flexibility in making layoffs was postponed.

In January 1994, France devalued the CFA franc, causing its value to drop in half. Immediately, prices for almost all imported goods soared as the inflation rate hit 32%. The devaluation was designed to encourage new investment, particularly in the export sectors of the economy, and discourage the use of hard currency reserves to buy products that could be grown domestically. In the face of raising prices, thousands demonstrated against the government. The government responded by imposing temporary price controls in an effort to prevent price-gouging by local merchants and halt the sharp rise in inflation.

After the initial shock, the devaluation began to pay dividends. Senegal was also helped by debt rescheduling and over $1.5 billion in financial aid from the World Bank and other international donors. In 1995, foreign assistance represented almost 40% of the government's budget. This inflow of foreign aid, which was closely tied to progress on donor mandated economic reforms, helped the economy grow at a rate of 4.5% in 1995 and 1996, and over 5% in through late 1990s. Between 2001 and 2005 GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5% with a high of 6.5% in 2003 and a low of 1.1% in 2001. The inflation rate, which rose to 32% in 1994, fell to 1.6% in 2005.

As of 2005, over 80% of GDP represented private activity, and significant parastatal companies had been privatized, including water, telecommunications, mining, and aviation. However, the government still remained the country's largest single employer. The information technology sector had experienced a boom, as Senegal became fully connected to the Internet in 1996 and Senegalese have become experienced users of that service. Tourism is increasingly a source of foreign exchange, although the fishing sector remained Senegal's chief earner of foreign exchange in 2003 accounting for 46% of exports.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Senegal's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $20.6 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,800. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 6.1%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 1.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 16.1% of GDP, industry 21.4%, and services 62.5%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $344 million or about $34 per capita and accounted for approximately 5.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $450 million or about $44 per capita and accounted for approximately 7.0% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Senegal totaled $5.03 billion or about $493 per capita based on a GDP of $6.5 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 3.2%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 46% of household consumption was spent on food, 13% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 15% on education. It was estimated that in 2001 about 54% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

Senegal's workforce was estimated at 4.82 million for 2005. According to a 1990 estimate (the latest year for which data was available), 77% of the labor force was in agriculture. The unemployment rate was estimated at 48% in 2001. The unemployment rate among urban youth was placed at 40%.

Senegal's fundamental labor legislation is based on the French overseas labor code of 1952, which provides for collective agreements between employers and trade unions, for the fixing of basic minimum wages by the government on recommendation of advisory committees. The code also provides for paid annual leave and for child allowances. The right to strike is recognized by law, and there are special labor courts. The largest trade union organization is the National Confederation of Senegalese Workers, which since 1970 has been the official union affiliated with the ruling PS. Its major rival is the National Union of Autonomous Labor Unions of Senegal. The industrial workforce is almost totally unionized. Although the relative number of union members is small, they have considerable political power due to their control of vital segments of the economy.

The minimum working age is 16, when minors may work in apprenticeships. The prohibition of child labor is strictly enforced in the formal sector, but somewhat less so in the informal and traditional economies. The labor law provides for a workweek of 40 to 48 hours and minimum occupational and safety and health regulations. However, these labor regulations are not effectively enforced outside of the formal economy. The minimum wage was $0.37 in 2001.

AGRICULTURE

Most of Senegal lies within the drought-prone Sahel region, with irregular rainfall and generally poor soils. With only about 5% of the land irrigated, the heavy reliance on rainfed cultivation results in large fluctuations in production. About 70% of the working population is involved in farming. Agriculture (including forestry, livestock, and fisheries) accounts for 17% of GDP. Most Senegalese farms are small (1.5–2.4 hectares/3.7–5.9 acres), and about 60% are in the so-called Peanut Basin, east of Dakar. Much of the agricultural land is still tribally owned. Only about 13% of Senegal's total land area is cultivated; millet took up 27% of the cultivated land in 2004.

Since independence, the Senegalese government has developed a system of generally small cooperatives to rationalize agricultural production and marketing and to free the farmers from chronic indebtedness to private traders; these were replaced in 1984 by a network of "village sections" with financial autonomy. Parastatal agencies guarantee minimum prices of major agricultural crops, including peanuts, millet, sorghum, rice, and cotton.

In theory all peanuts are processed locally, and prices of processed peanut oil and other peanut products are set by parastatal agencies. Production of unshelled peanuts varies widely because of periodic drought, and production is frequently underreported because of unauthorized sales to processors in neighboring countries. In 2004, the reported production was 465,000 tons (95% for oil). Cotton, Senegal's other major export crop, is produced and marketed under the direction of the Society for the Development of Textile Fibers (Société de Développement des Fibres Textiles—SODEFITEX). Seed cotton production was 58,000 tons in 2004. Other oil seed crops in 2004 included sesame seed, 24,000 tons; palm kernels, 5,900 tons; and melonseed, 1,800 tons.

Production of food crops, some of which are grown in rotation with peanuts, does not meet Senegal's needs. Only in years of favorable rainfall does the country approach self-sufficiency in millet and sorghum, the basic staples. Production amounts in 2004 included (in thousands of tons): corn, 423; millet, 379; rice, 265; cassava, 180; and sorghum, 132. Market gardening takes place largely in the Dakar region and to a lesser extent around Thiès. Sugarcane, grown on about 8,000 hectares (19,700 acres), yielded 850,000 tons of sugarcane in 2004.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Raising livestock is a primary activity in the northern section of Senegal and a secondary one for farmers in the southern and central regions. Cattle are raised mainly by the Sérer and by nomadic Fulani. Sheep and goats are important in parts of the southwest. Cattle imported from Mauritania meet part of the nation's meat requirements, but livestock are also exported to neighboring countries.

In 2005, the estimated livestock population included 3.1 million head of cattle; 4.7 million sheep; 4 million goats; 509,000 horses; 412,000 donkeys; 315,000 hogs; 4,000 camels; and 46 million poultry. The slaughter in 2005 yielded an estimated 47,800 tons of beef and veal and 32,000 tons of sheep and goat meat. Hides are exported or used in local shoe production and handicrafts; 9,550 tons of cattle hides were produced in 2005. Substantial quantities of cheese, butter, and canned and powdered milk are imported.

The poultry sector consists of a few commercial producers and an important informal sector that also raises the chicks produced by the commercial sector. Production of poultry meat totaled 65,300 tons in 2005. Egg production was 34,000 tons in 2005. In 1996, an outbreak of Newcastle disease disrupted local egg production, and producers began vaccinating chicks at the breeding farms. Due to the large size of the traditional poultry sector, there is always disease present.

FISHING

Senegal has a flourishing fishing industry, and Dakar is one of the most important Atlantic tuna ports. In 2003, fish exports amounted to $282.7 million. The total catch in 2003 was 448,271 tons, 24% of it was round sardinella and 33% Madeiran sardinella.

FORESTRY

Senegal has about 6.2 million hectares (15.3 million acres) of classified forest, most of it in the Casamance region. Timber production is small, with firewood and charcoal being the most important forest products. About 6.04 million cu m (213 million cu ft) of roundwood was cut in 2004, of which about 87% went for fuel. Senegal is highly vulnerable to declining rainfall and desertification.

MINING

Phosphate rock, fertilizer, petroleum refining, and the production of construction materials were among the minerals produced by Senegal in 2004. Mining has taken on added importance for Senegal's economy in the postindependence era, with phosphate rock, phosphoric acid, fertilizer production, artisanal gold, and petroleum exploration playing key roles in the country's economy. In 2004, production of aluminum phosphate was estimated at 4,000 metric tons. Calcium phosphate production that same year was estimated at 1.8 million metric tons, up from 1.761 million metric tons in 2003. Calcium phosphate-based fertilizer production was 210,000 metric tons in 2004. In addition to the Taiba phosphate rock mine already exploited northeast of Dakar, the government has identified deposits at Matam, whose 40.5 million tons of reserves would likely remain unexploited under existing phosphate market conditions.

Salt output was estimated at 240,000 metric tons in 2004. Also produced were hydraulic cement, fuller's earth (attapulgite) and other clays, natural gas, crude oil, limestone, and sand. The government's estimate of unreported gold production in 2004 was placed at 600 kg unchanged for 2002 and 2003. Many foreign companies had active exploration permits in Sabodala and Kanoumering, where Precambrian (Birimian) metamorphic rocks were exposed and significant reserves of gold have been reported. Iron ore reserves of 600 million tons have been identified in the Faleme, Farangalia, and Goto deposits, with a forecast capacity of 12 million tons per year; their development, though, could not justify the cost of creating the extensive port shipping and rail infrastructure needed to exploit the deposits. Eastern Senegal also had 350,000 tons of marble, as well as deposits of peat, uranium, titanium, serpentine, and other minerals.

In 2000, a newly elected government included among its top priorities the development of the country's inadequate infrastructure by improving the highway system, modernizing railroads, and constructing a new airport. In 2001, the African Development Bank Group approved an $18.7 million loan to help finance the 148-km Diamniadio-Mbour-Kaolack road project. The 25-month project was expected to revitalize economic growth in the region. The Ministère des Mines, de l'Energie at de l'Hydraulique was responsible for the administration over natural resources, and the Direction des Mines et de la Géologie was responsible for the mining sector.

ENERGY AND POWER

Senegal's electric power generation is based entirely on conventional thermal or fossil fuels. Electric power generating capacity was 239,000 kW in 2002. Production in that year totaled 1.438 billion kWh. Consumption of electricity in 2002 was 1.337 billion kWh.

Although Senegal had proven crude oil reserves of 700 million barrels, and a crude oil refining capacity of 27,000 barrels per day, as of 1 January 2003, there was no recorded crude oil production in 2002. However, imports of crude oil totaled 18,540 barrels per day. Refined oil production averaged 18,890 barrels per day. Refined petroleum imports in 2002 averaged 12,640 barrels per day. Demand for refined oil products in that year averaged 30,050 barrels per day.

Senegal does possess modest natural gas reserves, that as of 1 January 2003 were put at 106 billion cu ft. Natural gas production in 2002 came to 1.77 billion cu ft, all of which went to meet domestic demand There are also extensive reserves of peat along the coast between Dakar and Saint-Louis.

INDUSTRY

Senegal's manufacturing sector contributed 21.4% to GDP in 2005, registering annual growth increases consistently during the 1980s, 1990s, and into the 21st century. Agroindustry (oil mills, sugar refineries, fish canneries, flour mills, bakeries, beverage and dairy processing, and tobacco manufacturing) plays a key role and accounts for some 40% of value added. Especially important are groundnut-processing mills. The textile industry includes four cotton-ginning mills, factories for weaving, dyeing, and printing cloth, and plants that produce mattresses, thread, and hats. Cement, refined petroleum products, fertilizers, and phosphoric acid are produced. Other industrial products include plywood, boats, bicycles, soap, leather goods, paints, acetylene, sulfuric acid, and cigarettes.

Senegal's oil potential has yet to be completely ascertained. There is a refinery at Dakar, with production capacity of 27,000 barrels per day. Petrosen, the state-owned oil company, is encouraging exploration. One natural gas field has been discovered.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The African Regional Center for Technology, with 30 member states, has its headquarters in Dakar. Most research facilities in Senegal deal with agricultural subjects. Dakar has centers for mining and medical research and a research institute on African food and nutrition problems. An institute of research for oils and oilseeds is at Bambey. The Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Dakar, operates a national center of agronomical research at Bambey, a national laboratory of livestock and veterinary research at Dakar, an oceanographic center at Dakar, and numerous other technical facilities throughout the country.

The University Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, founded in 1949, has faculties of medicine and pharmacy and of sciences, and research institutes in psychopathology, leprosy, pediatrics, renewable energy, applied tropical medicine, applied mathematics, health and development, environmental science, adontology and stomatology, applied nuclear technology, and the teaching of mathematics, physics, and technology. The University of Saint Louis has an applied mathematics unit. Other facilities for scientific training include a polytechnic school at Thiès; an international school of sciences and veterinary medicine, representing 13 French-speaking countries, at Dakar; and an institute of nutritional technology at Dakar. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 21% of college and university enrollments. For the period 1990–2001 there were three technicians and two scientists and engineers engaged in research and development per million people. In 2002, Senegal had high technology export of $15 million, or 4% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Dakar is not only the capital and largest city of Senegal but also the nation's largest consumer market and a major commercial and industrial center of West Africa. Many large trading firms have headquarters in France. Lebanese residents also play an important role in trade, however, many of their businesses are gradually being replaced by Senegalese merchants. A small number of supermarkets and larger retail stores deal primarily in imported goods. A few foreign franchise firms have made their way into the country.

Smuggling of goods from The Gambia is a serious problem, since such illicit imports undercut Senegalese products in price. A large informal domestic trade takes place in the Dakar marketplace known as Sandaga. Here, street vendors sell a wide variety of goods from cosmetics and shoes to stereo equipment.

Since Senegal ratified the WTO agreement in 1995, the government's role in domestic trade has been reduced. Subsidies for rice, sugar, wheat, and flour have been eliminated.

Normal business hours are from 8 or 9 am to noon and 3 to 6 pm, Monday–Friday, and 8 or 9 am to noon on Saturday. Banks are usually open 7:45 am to 12:15 pm and 1:30 to 3:45 pm, Monday–Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Export revenues doubled between 1997 and 2000. The most important commodity exports for Senegal are shellfish (20%), fish (14%), refined petroleum products (11%), peanut oil (9.7%), inorganic

chemicals (6.7%), and fertilizers (crude and manufactured, 6.2%). Main destinations of exports in 2004 were India (14%), France (10.2%), Mali (10.2%) and Italy (5.8%). During the same year imports came from France (25%), Nigeria (12.1%), Italy (4%) and Thailand (3.8%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Since independence, as in colonial times, Senegal's balance of payments has generally run a deficit on current accounts, mainly covered by foreign aid from France (and, more recently, from other EU members). Remittances from Senegalese working in France, together with small inflows of private capital, have also helped cover the shortfalls.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Senegal's exports was $1.53 billion while

imports totaled $2.41 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $88 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

In 1959, the Central Bank of the West African States (Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest—BCEAO) succeeded the Currency Board of French West Africa and Togo as the bank of issue for the former French West African territories. In 1962, it was reorganized as the joint note-issue bank of Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Mauritania (which left in 1973), Niger, Senegal, Togo, and Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), members of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). BCEAO notes, known as CFA francs, are guaranteed by France without limitation, formerly to the French franc and now to the euro. Foreign exchange receipts of the member states go into the franc area's exchange pool, which in turn covers their foreign exchange requirements. In 1973, the member states of the BCEAO signed new statutes that, among other things, provided for increased Africanization of bank personnel, transfer of headquarters from Paris to Dakar, and greater participation of the bank in the development activities of member states.

Commercial banks operating in Senegal include the International Bank for Occidental Africa (French-owned), Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et l'Industrie du Senegal, Credit Lyonnais, Banque Senegalo Tunisienne, Ecobank, Societe Generale, Citibank, and Banque Islamique du Senegal. The most significant development bank is the government-controlled National Development Bank of Senegal, which participates in development projects and provides credit for government organizations, mixed societies, and cooperatives. Another development financing institution is the Housing Bank of Senegal. A new credit institution, the National Fund for Agricultural Credit, was created in 1984.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $727.1 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $1.2 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6.5%.

There are no securities exchanges in Senegal.

INSURANCE

As of 1997, at least 14 companies provided insurance in Senegal. Third-party motor insurance is compulsory.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Although Senegal's finances are recorded as being in balance each year, in fact the country has run persistent deficits since 1976, generally covered by foreign aid which represented 32% of the budget in 2000. Senegal qualified for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. Progress on the structural reforms required for the program is on track, but slow. From 1987 to 1998, Senegal's fiscal deficit fell from 12% of GDP to 7% of GDP. Donor mandated economic reforms have helped the government to restrain spending while the closing of tax loopholes has increased revenues helping Senegal to reduce the deficit.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Senegal's central government took in revenues of approximately $1.6 billion and had expenditures of $1.9 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$269 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 46.5% of GDP. Total external debt was $3.61 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were CFA Fr612.2 billion and expenditures were CFA Fr641.2 billion. The value in US dollars was revenue us$860 million and expenditures us$900 million, based on a official exchange rate for 2000 of us$1 = CFA Fr711.98 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 34.2%; defense, 7.3%; economic affairs, 2.4%; housing and community amenities, 2.8%; health, 3.5%; and education, 13.7%.

TAXATION

The corporate income tax rate in Senegal in 2005 was 33%. There is also a 10% withholding tax on those profits realized in Senegal by foreign companies that have not been reinvested into the country. Generally, capital gains are taxed at the corporate rate. However if the gains are used to acquire new fixed assets in Senegal within three years, or arise from a merger or other acquisition, the tax can be deferred. Dividends and royalties are subject to withholding taxes of 10% and 20%, respectively. Interest income from long term bonds is subject too a 6% withholding tax. Interest from bank interest or other sources are subject to withholding taxes of 8% and 16%, respectively. Senegal has double-taxation treaties with about 18 countries.

Individual taxes include a salary tax on the employee (3% for a Senegalese worker, and 6% for a foreign worker) and a general income tax with rates ranging up to 50%.

Indirect taxes have long been the mainstay of Senegal's tax system, with import duties by far the most important. Other indirect taxes include the business license tax, export taxes, a real estate tax, and registration and stamp taxes. The value-added tax (VAT) has a standard rate of 18%. An equalization tax is applied to local purchases at 2% and to importations at 5%.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

In January 2000, Senegal put into effect a new tariff scheme that conforms to the common external tariff (CET) scheme agreed on by member nations of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU). Under this new tariff structure, Senegal has four simple tariff rate categories: 0% on cultural and scientific goods, agricultural inputs, and capital goods and computer equipment not available from local production; 5% on raw materials, crude oil, and cereals for industry; 10% on semifinished products, intermediate goods, diesel and fuel oil; and 20% on consumer goods, capital goods and computer equipment available from local production, and vehicles. However, there also exists an array of other import tariffs, with a maximum combined rate of 52% and a value-added tax (VAT) of 18% applied to all imports.

In 1982, Senegal abolished its import licensing system, opening the market to all countries on an equal basis; previously, only products from the franc zone and the European Union (EU) could be imported without a license. Certain import restrictions exist on agricultural and industrial products that support the Senegalese economy.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Following independence, Senegal's economic policy shifted from a largely laissez-faire, noninterventionist stance to a policy of increasing government participation in economic affairs. By 1975, the government had effectively nationalized groundnut trade and processing, assumed majority control of the two main phosphate companies, and nationalized water distribution and electricity production. Half a generation later, in 1991, a slow privatization of the parastatal sector was under way.

In spite of its parastatal tradition, Senegal encourages private investment, which remains substantial. The investment code, enacted in 1962 and significantly revised in 1972, 1978, and 1981, encourages both domestic and foreign private investment in industrial, agricultural, mineral, transport, tourist, and other enterprises that conform to the goals of the national development program. Incentives include tax advantages and exemptions from customs and duties.

An industrial free trade zone located outside Dakar offers preferential access to West African Economic Community, ECOWAS, and European Economic Community countries. Aside from exchange-control regulations, there are no restrictions on the repatriation of capital and earnings for amounts up to CFA 200,000; above this amount, prior government approval is required. By the beginning of 1992, 15 firms had begun operations in the zone. In December 1983, Senegal signed a bilateral investment treaty with the United States, becoming the first sub-Saharan African nation to do so.

Foreign investment rose steadily from 13.8% of GDP in 1993 to 16.5% in 1997. In 1997, annual foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows peaked at $176 million, but have declined since, with some ups and downs. In 2001, FDI inflow was $125.5 million, up from $88 million in 2000. In the period 2001–04, FDI inflows totaled $239 million at an average rate $59.75 million per year. Most private investment in Senegal has come from France, and the telecommunications sector has attracted the most foreign investment.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Senegal's development program addresses the basic problems encountered by Senegal's economy: lack of diversified output, the inefficiency of investments, the role of state in economic activity, and the excessive expansion of domestic consumer demand. These problems have been partly addressed by programs focusing on food self-sufficiency, fishing, and tourism, and by strengthening high-return activities. Projects such as the Manantali irrigation project, the phosphate-to-fertilizer recovery project, and the trawler modernization program are examples of what Senegal is doing within this policy framework. In the area of manufacturing, capacity utilization improvement, equipment modernization, and low-capital production are emphasized. Since 1994, the government has made progress in privatizing state-owned enterprises, reducing labor costs to improve competitiveness in the manufacturing sector, and liberalizing trade by eliminating export subsidies and removing restrictions on certain strategic imports. Private economic revenues accounted for roughly over 80% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2005, but trade liberalization had not progressed as much as planned.

In 2000, Senegal became eligible for around $800 million in debt service relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF)/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. In 2003, the IMF approved a $33 million three-year Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement for Senegal, to support the government's economic reform program. In September of 2005, the World Bank and the IMF backed a deal to cancel about $55 billion of debts owed by 18 of the world's poorest countries, 14 of which are in sub-Saharan Africa including Senegal. The government is committed to continue the donor-supported economic reform program as outlined in the IMF's three-year poverty reduction and growth facility (PRGF). Senegal's Agency for the Promotion of Investment (APIX) aims to promote foreign investment.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Since 1955, a system of family allowances for wage earners has provided modest maternity and child benefits. The system is financed by employer contributions at the rate of 7% of gross salary; an additional 1–5% contribution finances a fund for occupational health and accident coverage. Shared equally by employer and employee is a 6% contribution to a fund for general medical and hospital expenses. In addition, employees contribute 4.8% of gross salary to a retirement fund and employers contribute 7.2%. The retirement age is 55. This program covers employed persons, including domestic, seasonal and day workers.

According to the UN only 20% of women participate in the work force. Discrimination against women is widespread in both education and employment. Although prohibited by law, female genital mutilation is practiced by ethnic groups in rural areas. Women in urban areas, however, are making progress in the workplace. The government adopted legislation mandating fines and prison terms of up to three years for sexual harassment. Although minority religions are protected under law and are free to practice their religions, non-Muslims may face discrimination in civil, political, or economic matters.

Despite the vigorous multiparty political activity, there have been charges of human rights violations and electoral irregularities, as well as restrictions on freedom of press and association. Security forces commit abuses including arbitrary arrest and detention, beatings, and torture.

HEALTH

As of 2004, there were an estimated 7 physicians, 3 pharmacists, 1 dentist, 7 midwives, and 22 nurses per 100,000 people. Approximately 78% of the total population had access to safe drinking water and 70% had adequate sanitation. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.5% of GDP.

Major health problems include measles and meningitis along with such water-related diseases as malaria, trypanosomiasis, onchocerciasis, and schistosomiasis. There were approximately 258 cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. Malnutrition was prevalent in 23% of all children under age five. Goiter was present in 41 of 100 school-age children. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 80%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 65%; polio, 65%; and measles, 65%. Infant mortality was 54.12 per 1,000 live births in 2005; maternal mortality was 560 per 100,000 live births in 1998. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 37 and 8.1 per 1,000 people. Only around 11% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. The total fertility rate in the same year was 5.1 children per woman living through her childbearing years. In 2005, life expectancy was 58.90, an improvement over the previous years.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.80 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 44,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 3,500 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Most housing in Dakar is like that of a European city. Elsewhere, housing ranges from European-type structures to the circular mud huts with thatched roofs common in villages.

Since World War II, the growth of Dakar and other towns has been rapid, with government activity largely concentrated on improvement of urban housing and sanitation. In 1952, the city of Pikine was chosen as a place to rehouse about 100,000 people who were evicted from the slums of Dakar. In 2002, there were about one million people in Pikine. The town of Dalifort, between Pikine and Dakar, has since been chosen as a new site for government projects of rehousing. According to the latest available information for 1980–88, the total housing stock numbered 1,350,000 with 4.9 people per dwelling.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory for six years of primary school, for students between ages 6 and 12. For those attending secondary school, there are options for a seven-year general education (in two cycles of four years and three years) or a five-year technical or vocational program (in two cycles of three years and two years). The academic year runs from October to July.

In 2001, about 3% of children between the ages of four and six were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 69% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was less than 19% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 47.8% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 49:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 27:1. In 2003, private schools accounted for about 11% of primary school enrollment and 25% of secondary enrollment.

The University of Dakar has two graduate schools and numerous research centers. For over 30 years, the University of Dakar offered free tuition and generous subsidies to students. However, in 1994 it began implementing new austerity measures aimed at scaling back enrollment, raising academic standards and getting students to pay for more of the cost of their education. A polytechnic college opened at Thiès in 1973. Other colleges include a national school of administration at Dakar and a school of sciences and veterinary medicine for French-speaking Africa. Universities and equivalent institutions had about 29,000 students in1998. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 39.3%, with 51.1% for men and 29.2% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.6% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

There are four major libraries in Senegal, all located in Dakar. The oldest is the Archives of Senegal, founded in 1913, which has a collection of more than 26,000 volumes. The largest is the Central Library of the University of Dakar, founded in 1952, which has over 306,000 volumes. The Basic Institute of Black Africa (Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire—IFAN) and the Alliance Française maintain libraries of over 70,000 and 7,000 volumes, respectively. In addition to these major facilities, there are specialized libraries attached to various research institutes. In total, Senegal had 10 libraries associated with institutes of higher education in 2002.

The Museum of African Art in Dakar and the History Museum and the Museum of the Sea on Gorée Island are operated by IFAN. There are natural history museums in Dakar and Saint-Louis and a local museum in Saint-Louis.

MEDIA

Telephone and telegraph services, publicly owned and operated, are good by African standards, particularly in the coastal area and in the main centers of peanut production. In 2003, there were an estimated 22 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 9,800 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 56 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. French submarine cables connect Dakar with Paris, Casablanca, Conakry (Guinea), and Recife (Brazil), and radiotelephone facilities are also in operation. The postal system provides international telephone facilities.

The government-operated radio and television service has transmitters throughout the country. The two national radio networks based in Dakar broadcast mostly in French, while the regional stations in Rufisque, Saint-Louis, Tambacounda, Kaolack, and Ziguinchor, which originate their own programs, broadcast primarily in six local languages. In 2004, there were over 25 privately-owned radio stations. There are no privately owned television stations in the country, but French and South African satellite services are available. In 2003, there were an estimated 126 radios and 78 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 21.2 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 22 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were three secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

The constitution guarantees freedom of opinion, which the press is generally free to exercise. In 2004, there were about 15 independent dailies and three government dailies. The main papers with 2002 circulation were: Le Soleil du Sénégal, the PS party newspaper, with an estimated 45,000 circulation, and Sud Quotidien (30,000). There are also several weekly newspapers and magazines.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture in the principal cities. Professional and trade associations also exist. The Consumers International Subregional Office for West and Central Africa is located in Dakar.

The Alliance Française sponsors lectures and concerts. Of the many sport and social associations in the towns, those for soccer are especially popular, but racing clubs, aero clubs, and automobile clubs are also active. National youth organizations include the Democratic Youth Movement, the Socialist Youth Movement, Young Workers Movement, YMCA, and the Senegalese Scout Confederation. The John F. Kennedy Center Dakar encourages youth participation in volunteer efforts.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs International, are also present. The Daniel Boitier Center in Dakar is a Roman Catholic organization for the study of social and economic problems. Panos Institute networks with community groups and organizations to encourage community development projects. The African Council of AIDS Service Organizations is based in Dakar. Other social action groups include the Femmes Developpement Entreprise en Afrique, Goree Institute, and Hope Unlimited. International organizations with national chapters include Amnesty International, Defence for Children International, Caritas, Habitat for Humanity, UNICEF, and the Red Cross.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

The comfortable climate, variety of cultural attractions, attractive physical features such as the coastal beaches and the 5,996sq-km (2,315-sq-mi) Niokolo-Koba National Park, and the relative proximity to Europe have all combined to make Senegal an increasingly popular vacation area and international conference center. Gorée Island, near Dakar, has many former slave houses, where perhaps 20 million slaves were kept before being shipped to America between 1536 and 1848. Wrestling and fishing are popular, and hunting is allowed from December to May on an 80,000hectare (198,000-acre) reserve.

All visitors arriving from infected areas must have a valid yellow fever vaccination certificate. Visas are required for all foreign nationals except those of: Algeria, Mauritius, South Africa, Japan, Taiwan, Israel, Canada, the European Economic Community(EEC), the United States, and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Visas are valid for up to 90 days.

In 2003, there were 353,539 tourists who arrived in Senegal, a 17% increase from the previous year. Hotel rooms numbered 10,268 with 20,437 beds and an occupancy rate of 37%. The average length of stay was four nights.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the daily cost of staying in Dakar was $213. Other areas were less at $114 per day.

FAMOUS SENEGALESE

Blaise Diagne (1872–1934) was the first African to be elected to the French parliament and to hold office in the French government as an undersecretary of state. Léopold-Sédar Senghor (1906–2001), president of Senegal from 1960 until his retirement in 1980, was a French-language poet of distinction; in 1984, he became a life member of the French Academy, the first black African to receive that honor. Abdou Diouf (b.1935) was president of Senegal (1981–2000), after serving as prime minister (1970–80). Abdoulaye Wade (b.1926) became president in 2000. Among Senegalese writers are Birago Diop (1906–89), author of short stories, and David Diop (1927–60), an internationally known poet. Ousmane Sembene (b.1923) is a film director and writer of international repute. Cheikh Anta Diop (1923–86), RND leader, wrote many works of distinction on African history.

DEPENDENCIES

Senegal has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berg, Elizabeth L. Senegal. New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1999.

Boone, Catherine. Merchant Capital and the Roots of State Power in Senegal, 1930–1985. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Clark, Andrew Francis. Historical Dictionary of Senegal. 2nd ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

Gellar, Sheldon. Senegal: An African Nation between Islam and the West. 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995.

Getz, Trevor R. Slavery and Reform in West Africa: Toward Emancipation in Nineteenth-century Senegal and the Gold Coast. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004.

Lambert, Michael C. Longing for Exile: Migration and the Making of a Translocal Community in Senegal, West Africa. Portmouth, N.H.: Heinemann, 2002.

Robinson, David. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880–1920. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2000.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.