Madison, James

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Madison, James

Born March 16, 1751 (Port Conway, Virginia)

Died June 28, 1836 (Montpelier, Virginia)

U.S. president, secretary of state

Between 1780 and 1817, James Madison's overriding goal was the success of American independence. Madison directed key aspects of the formation of the new nation. At the age of twenty-nine, he produced a plan for ceding (giving up) Virginia's western land claims, a plan that prompted the successful ratification (approval) of the nation's first constitution, the Articles of Confederation. When barely thirty-five, Madison worked with the Virginia legislature to pass a document written by his friend Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826; see entry in volume 1) that provided a basis for religious freedom in America. At thirty-six, he was the chief author of the U.S. Constitution, which was adopted by the states in 1788. A year later, he pulled together suggestions by the states for additions to the Constitution; these additions became the Bill of Rights. For eight years, from 1801 to 1809, he served under President Jefferson as secretary of state. From 1809 until 1817, Madison served as the nation's fourth president. He retired feeling convinced that American independence was secured.

"The advice nearest to my heart and deepest in my convictions is that the Union of the States be cherished and perpetuated."

Young Madison

Born on March 16, 1751, to James Madison Sr. (1723–1801) and Nelly Conway Madison (1732–1829), James was the first of eleven children. He grew up on a prosperous tobacco plantation in Virginia called Montpelier, which was home to over one hundred slaves.

James's early education with tutor Donald Robertson between 1762 and 1767 instilled in him a love of learning. His second teacher, the Reverend Thomas Martin, was a graduate of Princeton, then called the Presbyterian College of New Jersey. Most likely at Martin's urging, young Madison decided to attend Princeton rather than the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, where most sons of wealthy Virginians were educated.

Madison left for Princeton in 1769. Intent on his studies, he graduated in only two and a half years at the age of twenty. His rigorous regimen of study, which was self-imposed, left him exhausted. He recovered at Montpelier while helping his father manage the property. However, Madison's first interest was reading and learning all he could. Madison Sr. allowed his son to order books on many subjects—philosophy, law, economics, sciences, literature, history, and politics. Madison could competently read books written in French, Greek, Italian, Latin, Spanish, and Hebrew.

Public life begins

Madison's life took a new meaning when the first shots of the American Revolution (1775–83) were fired at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. Madison wholeheartedly embraced separation from Britain and creation of a republican form of government, one run for and by the people. Orange County voters elected him as a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1776 in Williamsburg. On June 7, 1776, the convention delegates adopted the Declaration of Rights and a constitution written by a fellow delegate, George Mason (1725–1792).

Twenty-five-year-old Madison made a favorable and lasting impression on the other Virginia delegates. His next official duty was to serve on Virginia's Privy Council or Council of State. The council aided Governor Patrick Henry (1736–1799) in carrying out his duties. In 1777, those duties generally had to do with the war effort and included recruiting soldiers and ordering supplies. Madison kept a close watch on the war's progress. He had become a revolutionary through and through, and from this time on, his whole life was dedicated to the success of the American Revolution.

In June 1778, the General Assembly of Virginia chose Madison as a delegate to the Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia. Madison declined, saying he preferred serving on the Council of State. In 1779, Thomas Jefferson succeeded Henry as governor, so for the first of many occasions, Madison

James Madison and the Library of Congress

James Madison was a bibliophile, a lover of books. He began his library at his home in Montpelier, Orange County, Virginia. His father allowed James to purchase books on any topic that he found interesting. James was interested in most subjects—philosophy, law, economics, sciences, literature, history, and politics. He could also read in six languages—French, Greek, Italian, Latin, Spanish, and Hebrew—so his library was not confined to books written in English. By the time Madison retired to Montpelier in 1817, his library contained several thousand books, less than one-third in English.

When Madison was a Virginia delegate to the Continental Congress in 1783, he naturally volunteered to serve on a committee called the Committee on Books. Congress hoped to start a library for congressional research and asked the committee to look into the idea. Madison made a list of three hundred titles that should be purchased for such a library. The titles included books on law, politics, history, geography, war, language, and subjects related to the United States. The three hundred titles represented about thirteen hundred volumes. The list, in Madison's handwriting and dated January 24, 1783, is still preserved at the modern Library of Congress. Unfortunately in 1783, Congress had no funds for a library, so the list was never used.

In 1800, Congress passed an act signed by President John Adams that established the Library of Congress. It was first housed in one room in the first and only completed wing of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. Congress appropriated $5,000 to buy books. Between 1801 and 1814, the library's collections grew rapidly under the presidencies of Thomas Jefferson, another bibliophile, and Madison. During the War of 1812, British troops almost completely destroyed the collection when they marched on Washington and set fire to all the government buildings. Immediately, President Madison signed an act of Congress to buy Jefferson's private library of 6,487 books to replace the collections lost in the fire. Thereafter, the library continued to grow.

In 1897, the library moved into an elaborate sandstone building just east of the Capitol. A second library building was completed in 1938. In 1980, the third building, the largest library building in the world, was completed and named the James Madison Memorial Building. The 1897 structure was renamed the Thomas Jefferson Building, and the 1938 building was renamed the John Adams Building in honor of the nation's second president. These three buildings make up the Library of Congress, the world's largest library. They house 130 million items—books and other printed material, recordings, photographs, maps, and manuscripts—that are available for use by Congress and the American people.

served under Jefferson. Madison immediately liked the personable Jefferson and enjoyed conversing with him. Likewise, Jefferson took note of Madison's intellect, energy, and commitment to the cause of American independence. Jefferson and Madison began what would be almost fifty years of cooperation and friendship. However, Madison's time under Jefferson ended when the Virginia General Assembly insisted that Madison join the state's delegation at the Continental Congress.

Serving in the Continental Congress

Madison arrived in Philadelphia in March 1780 to begin his service in the Virginia delegation at the Continental Congress. Madison's two primary accomplishments during his almost three-year stay in Congress involved the cession of western claims by states and fierce support for U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River.

When Madison took his seat in Congress, the ratification process of the Articles of Confederation was stalled. The chief obstacle to approval was disagreement among the states over ownership and use of western lands, which at that time meant the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.

Madison came up with an idea about how to resolve the issue of western land use. By January 1781, he produced a plan for cession of Virginia's western claims; the document was called "Virginia's Cession of Western Lands to the United States." The plan suggested that Virginia give up its western land claims to Congress so that the land could be used for the common good of all the states. It also provided a cession model for the six other states holding western claims. Several years of negotiation between Congress and Virginia followed before the plan was agreed to. Nevertheless, the other states realized in 1781 that if Virginia, America's most influential state, was willing to cede its claims, the rest of the states holding claims should do likewise. When Madison submitted his proposal, Maryland was the only state still holding back its approval of the Articles of Confederation. Once they were convinced that all the states holding claims would give up their lands, Mary-land's delegates signed the Articles on March 1, 1781, and the nation's first constitution was officially in force.

The second issue that consumed a large part of Madison's time was navigation rights on the Mississippi River. Pioneers in the Ohio River valley and those settled in western areas bordering the Mississippi, such as Kentucky, needed to send their goods to market down the Mississippi and through the port of New Orleans to the east coast and Europe. Spain held claim to the Mississippi and to New Orleans and harassed American boatmen, occasionally closing the port at New Orleans. Madison fiercely defended U.S. rights on the Mississippi, and eventually U.S. navigation claims were secured.

Aside from congressional matters, Madison found time in 1783 to court and propose marriage to sixteen-year-old Catherine Floyd, the daughter of Continental congressman William Floyd (1734–1821) of New York. However, within the year, Catherine broke off the engagement. A disappointed Madison wrote to his friend Jefferson to tell him of this woeful love affair.

Return to Virginia

At the end of his term in late 1783, Madison returned to Montpelier and tried to interest himself in plantation management and perhaps training to become a lawyer. Neither subject held his attention, and he felt rescued when in April 1784 Orange County elected him to the Virginia House of Delegates. For the next three years, Madison attended legislative sessions in the House of Delegates in the fall and winter. His major accomplishment was successfully shepherding the Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom through the Virginia legislature. Religious freedom was a hotly debated topic in the states. The statute, written by Jefferson with Madison's help, stated that an individual was free to decide all religious matters for himself—religious freedom was a natural right. Historians recognize the document as the most important step toward religious freedom in America.

In the spring and summer, when the House of Delegates was not in session, Madison spent time at Montpelier and also traveled to the growing northern cities, especially Philadelphia and New York. Besides spending long hours in the cities' bookstores, he listened to people talk about their growing disenchantment with the Articles, which were proving too weak to hold the states in line. The Articles contained no plan for a national executive (president) or national court system, no way to tax the people to raise needed funds, and no way to regulate foreign trade alliances.

States in competitive turmoil

By 1786, the cooperation that had existed between the states during the Revolution had given way to mistrust, jealousy, and conflict. Each state issued its own currency and squabbled over its worth. States imposed taxes on each other. They made trade agreements with foreign nations to gain the upper hand over their neighboring states. The confused, deteriorating trade conditions made it difficult for Virginia planters to sell and export their products and to obtain loans to expand. In addition to economic turmoil over trade issues, the states were increasing taxes to pay for their war debts. Businessmen often passed on these taxes to farmers in the form of higher priced goods. Farmers had little money to pay for goods in the first place. Taking matters into their own hands, in August 1786 some Massachusetts farmers protested in the streets, and by spring of 1787 they were closing down state courts before being stopped by the Massachusetts militia. The protest was known as Shays's Rebellion.

Madison looked at the financial and trade problems with real misgivings. Fellow Virginian George Washington (1732–1799; see entry in volume 2), who had commanded the Continental Army during the Revolution, wrote to Madison that he feared a collapse of the union and all that had been won in the war might be lost. Madison also received letters from Jefferson, who was serving as minister to France. Jefferson said that European officials thought the young nation would soon collapse. Madison shuddered to think of such a possibility.

Making a start at state cooperation, a concerned Madison, together with Washington and Edmund Randolph (1753–1813; see entry in volume 2), called a meeting between Virginia and Maryland in the spring of 1785. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss commercial uses of the Potomac River, which flowed between the two states. The meeting, held at Mount Vernon, was successful, and the two states made plans to meet again. By the summer of 1786, the plans had grown to include all the states; the meeting was scheduled to begin in September in Annapolis, Maryland. Only five states—Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey—showed up, but they made a momentous decision. Led by Madison and Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804; see entry in volume 1), a brilliant young lawyer from New York, the states in attendance decided to call for a general meeting of all states to consider changing and strengthening the Articles of Confederation.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

Declining national economic conditions and the fear of another incident similar to Shays's Rebellion gave the states a strong incentive to attend the proposed meeting; it was clear that the Articles were not adequately serving the nation or the individual states. Seven state legislatures immediately authorized delegates. The Continental Congress, now meeting in New York City, put out an official call for the states to meet the second Monday in May 1787 in Philadelphia. Although not called such at the time, this meeting would become the Constitutional Convention of 1787. All states except Rhode Island attended.

During the winter of 1786–87, Madison prepared extensively for the meetings. He read all he could gather about different government systems both modern and ancient; he studied ideas about what a government should be and how it could be put together. Madison wrote to Jefferson in France for books about European political histories. Jefferson responded by sending him one hundred volumes. Through his studies, Madison became convinced that it was useless to merely fix the Articles. Instead, Madison would propose that a new constitution be written to create a new structure of government.

Virginia Plan

The Philadelphia convention was scheduled to begin on May 14, but because of heavy rain and extremely muddy roads, many delegates arrived late, and the convention did not begin until May 25. Madison had arrived early on May 3. Governor Randolph had also arrived early. While waiting for more delegates to arrive, Madison took advantage of the time to craft the Virginia Plan, his plan for a new frame of government.

When the convention finally got under way on May 25, 1787, the delegates chose General George Washington to preside as president of the convention. Major William Jackson (1759–1828) was designated secretary for the convention but did not carefully record the proceedings. If it had not been for Madison, little detail would be known about the creation of the U.S. Constitution. Madison chose a seat up front close to Washington and took comprehensive notes on everything that was said. He would not miss even one hour of the entire four-month convention and addressed the convention 161 times.

Although not authorized by Congress to do so, the convention quickly moved to throw out the Articles and devise a new form of government; in other words, they decided to write an entirely new national constitution. The Virginia delegation took a leadership role from the start. Governor Randolph read the Virginia Plan on May 29 and 30, though everyone present knew that Madison was the author of the plan. Historians assume Madison believed Randolph's tall stature would create a more commanding presence as he read. Madison stood only 5 feet 4 inches tall and did not present an imposing figure.

The Virginia Plan called for replacing the single-house Continental Congress with a powerful two-house legislature; it also proposed the addition of a president or executive, a national court system, and a system of checks and balances, measures to keep the three branches of government balanced in their powers. Although the original details of the plan were significantly altered through debate and compromise, the basic ideas proposed by Madison stood. Madison played a dominant role in deliberations, and history remembers him as the "Father of the Constitution."

Federalist Papers and ratification

The new constitution was sent to the states for ratification in September 1787. People who favored ratification were called Federalists; they supported a strong central or federal government. Those who opposed ratification were called Anti-Federalists. Madison teamed with Alexander Hamilton and statesman John Jay (1745–1829) of New York to anonymously write essays explaining why the Constitution should be ratified. The essays, called the Federalist Papers, were published in newspapers throughout the states. In total, the three men wrote eighty-five essays presenting the Federalist position. Madison authored twenty-nine of the essays, including the most famous, Federalist Paper, Number 10. His essays are considered the most important original analysis of the U.S. system of government ever written.

Only nine states needed to approve the Constitution to put it into effect, but by the end of July 1788, eleven had ratified and the Constitution became the law of the land. Only North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet ratified. The chief obstacle to ratification had been the lack of a bill of rights, a basic set of individual liberties that could never be taken away. During the ratification debates, various states had sent to Congress their requests for changes or additions to the Constitution; these were called amendments. Madison, who was now serving in the House of Representatives, combined the many recommendations into a concise list of twelve amendments. By December 15, 1791, the states had ratified ten of the twelve amendments. Those ten became the Bill of Rights.

Political parties develop

Madison understood the intent of the Constitution better than anyone in the country, and he advised George Washington, the nation's first president, on what it allowed. Madison also played an active role in helping Washington choose a permanent site for the U.S. capital, on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia. Washington called on Madison to write his speeches. When Washington considered stepping down from the presidency in 1792, Madison prepared a farewell speech. Washington did not step down, instead choosing to serve out the remainder of his second term in 1797, but parts of his famous Farewell Address, a published statement that announced his retirement, were written by Madison in 1792.

During Washington'ssecondterm, Madison and Washington parted ways over constitutional issues. Washington looked more and more to Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton for direction in solving the nation's financial difficulties. Hamilton supported establishment of a national bank. He also wanted to build up the nation's navy and commercial shipping fleet. Bankers and merchants favored this approach. Madison opposed establishment of a national bank because it was not called for in the Constitution. Madison and Jefferson, longtime friends who shared similar political views, opposed the national bank, intended to keep taxes low, and had no desire to build up the navy. Farmers tended to side with Madison and Jefferson. Two political parties emerged.

Washington, Hamilton, and John Adams (1735–1826; see entry in volume 1), Washington's vice president, along with many bankers and merchants, became known as Federalists. Madison and Jefferson, and like-minded farmers, were called Republicans (or later, Democratic-Republicans). The Republicans of the 1790s were entirely different from the modern Republican Party, which formed in the mid-1850s.

After two terms as president, Washington decided not to run again. At the time, ordinary citizens did not vote directly in presidential elections. Instead, electors chosen from each state cast votes for president. Whoever got the most votes was president, and whoever got the second most was vice president. In the 1796 election, the Federalist candidate, John Adams, received the most votes, seventy-one, and the Democratic-Republican candidate, Thomas Jefferson, came in second with sixty-eight. So in 1796, the nation had a president and vice president aligned with different political parties. Madison was offered a diplomatic mission to France, which he declined.

Dolley and solidifying beliefs

Madison went home to Montpelier in early 1797 to be with his wife, Dolley Madison (1768–1849; see entry in volume 2). Dolley and Madison had married in September 1794 after only a few months of courtship. Dolley grew up in Virginia and Philadelphia. She first married lawyer John Todd, but he died in the 1793 yellow fever epidemic. Dolley's energy would help sustain Madison through the rest of his public career. They remained at Montpelier until 1801.

Madison and Jefferson wrote to each other frequently and together solidified their ideas about how the U.S. republic should operate. Madison and Jefferson championed the common people, believing that they could make good decisions on political issues and cast thoughtful votes. They also believed that the rights and liberties of all people, not just the majority, had to be protected. Increasing numbers of Americans and newly arrived immigrants joined the Democratic-Republican side.

Federalists, on the other hand, tended to believe that the country would be run best by wealthy, highly educated men. Federalists began to see their numbers declining. Many newspapers, favoring the Democratic-Republican view, criticized President Adams, a Federalist, and the Federalist-controlled Congress. Congress lashed back by passing the Alien and Sedition Laws.

Alien and Sedition Laws

The Alien and Sedition Laws clearly infringed on civil rights (the basic rights that belong to individuals by virtue of their citizenship). The Alien Laws made it more difficult for immigrants to become U.S. citizens and allowed the president to expel or imprison an alien without giving a specific reason. An alien is a person who holds citizenship in one country but resides in a different country. The Sedition Act provided heavy fines and imprisonment for anyone writing, publishing, or speaking in a manner considered critical of the government or its officials. Ultimately, the Alien Laws were never used, but a number of newspapermen were charged under the Sedition Act.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

In 1798 and 1799, Democratic-Republicans fought hard against the Alien and Sedition Laws. Madison and Jefferson anonymously wrote resolutions denouncing the Alien and Sedition Laws as unconstitutional, meaning that the laws went against the intent of the Constitution. Jefferson wrote the Kentucky Resolution, which Kentucky's legislature passed. Madison wrote the Virginia Resolution, which Virginia's General Assembly passed. The resolutions declared the Alien and Sedition Laws to be null and void, in essence saying states had the right to declare laws passed by Congress unconstitutional. Jefferson and Madison were soon disappointed, however, because no other states agreed that it was within state power to decide the constitutionality of congressional laws. The debates over Madison and Jefferson's resolutions led the Supreme Court in 1803 to adopt the role of ruling on the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. The Constitution did not specifically say the Supreme Court had or did not have such power.

Although most states failed to adopt the resolutions, the debate focused opposition against the Federalist-written Alien and Sedition Laws. The laws proved disastrous for the Federalists in the presidential election of 1800. Democratic-Republicans won the election, and Jefferson became the nation's third president. He appointed Madison as his secretary of state.

Secretary of state

Madison served as Jefferson's secretary of state, his right-hand man, for the entire Jefferson presidency, from March 1801 until March 1809. Madison's wife, Dolley, also played a key role. Because Jefferson was a widower, Dolley took on the duties of official hostess at presidential social functions.

President Jefferson and Madison set about dismantling some Federalist policies that they found unacceptable. The hated Alien and Sedition Laws expired in 1801, and Congress, now controlled by Democratic-Republicans, failed to renew them. Both the president and Madison were determined to reduce the national debt, and they were successful. By the time Madison took over the presidency in 1809, the debt had been reduced from $83 million in 1801 to $57 million. With no war threatening, they reduced the navy and army that Presidents Washington and Adams had built up. At the urging of Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin (1761–1849; see entry in volume 1), a wizard with figures and finance, Jefferson and Madison kept the Federalist-established national bank.

Undoubtedly the most important happening during Madison's first four years as secretary of state was the purchase of Louisiana from France, a land deal that doubled the size of the United States. Louisiana referred to an immense region west of the Mississippi River from New Orleans north to Canada and west to the Rocky Mountains. Jefferson was easily reelected in November 1804, and Madison remained at his side as secretary of state.

As soon as Jefferson's second term began, war between Britain and France erupted after a few years of peace between the two old enemies. Jefferson and Madison held to a policy of neutrality, not favoring either side. They insisted neutrality gave the United States the right to continue freely trading with any foreign country as long as the trade did not involve war materials. Neither Britain nor France recognized such a right, and both warring countries seized American merchant ships when they had the opportunity to do so. Britain seized sailors from these ships as well, an action called impressment. British seamen would board American ships, seize crew members, and force them to work on British ships.

Jefferson decided to try to force Britain and France to stop their seizure of American ships by passing the Embargo Act. Madison agreed with the move, as he firmly believe dinusing economic controls or sanctions on other countries. Besides, they had reduced the U.S. Navy to only four ships, so going to war was not an option. The Embargo Act, passed on December 22, 1807, banned all U.S. merchant ships from sailing to foreign ports. It also prohibited foreign ships from carrying American goods away from U.S. ports. Jefferson and Madison believed that Britain and France relied on American goods and that they would agree to halt seizure of Americans hips so trade with America could resume.

The act backfired, crippling the U.S. economy rather than Britain and France. Exports (goods leaving the country) and imports (goods coming into the country) plummeted. Mid-Atlantic farmers saw wheat prices fall from $2 to 75 cents a bushel. Southern farmers saw tobacco and cotton stack up on wharves because there were no buyers. New Englanders, who relied most heavily on international shipping from their ports, felt great resentment over the Embargo Act.

Although the Embargo Act increased public support for the Federalist Party, the Democratic-Republican base was still widespread among ordinary Americans. Jefferson's exceptional ability to relate to the public outweighed his problems as president. Knowing Madison would most likely become the next president, Jefferson was ready to retire to his Virginia home at Monticello. Madison, the Democratic-Republican candidate for president in 1808, received 122 electoral votes, while Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (1746–1825), the Federalist candidate, received 47 votes.

President

President Madison inherited from Jefferson a country with major economic woes, primarily because of the Embargo Act. To make matters worse, the nation was creeping toward another war with European powers. Just before Madison took office in early 1809, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Intercourse Act, which restricted trade with Britain and France, but not other countries. Again, instead of easing trade restrictions on the United States to revive trade, Britain and France stubbornly continued seizing American ships and further closing ports to U.S. trade.

Out of desperation, Congress passed Macon's Bill No. 2 in May 1810. It temporarily lifted all trade restrictions against Britain and France, but promised to keep the restrictions lifted against whichever country lifted their restrictions against the United States while reimposing restrictions against the other country. In essence, the United States promised to economically assist whichever country quit harassing U.S. ships first. French leader Napoléon Bonaparte (1769–1821) announced he would repeal the French restrictions. Eager for any kind of resolution, Madison in November 1810 announced that France had complied with Macon's Bill and that the United States would therefore place restrictions on British trade once again. Trade with France resumed, while the United States and Britain grew further apart.

The midterm congressional elections in the fall of 1810 brought major changes to Congress. The government's failure to stop British seizures of American ships and sailors was a major source of public disgust. The country elected a group of twenty to thirty congressmen, primarily from the South and West and all Democratic-Republicans, who were eager to go to war with Britain to reclaim American honor. These congressmen became known as war hawks. Meanwhile, the Federalists, who were concentrated in the New England region, demanded that Madison resume trade with Britain and not go to war. New England merchants and manufacturers needed to ship their products to Britain. Madison himself wanted to avoid a declaration of war and was dismayed over the split in the nation.

The conflict with Britain over seizures of American ships and sailors continued in the spring of 1811. The war hawks wanted the U.S. Navy to begin escorting American merchant ships across the Atlantic. In May, a British warship approached an American merchant ship escorted by the U.S.S. President. The President fired on the British ship, killing several crewmen. War seemed close at hand.

War of 1812

With not even the slightest hint from Britain that it might halt the seizures and restrictions on U.S. trade, Madison felt he had no choice but to take the nation to war. In early June 1812, he delivered a war message to Congress. On June 18, Congress declared war against Britain. All Federalists in Congress voted against the war, but most Democratic-Republicans supported Madison's decision, with the exception of fourteen Democratic-Republicans from the North.

The British had actually been suffering a great deal from not being able to trade with America; therefore, on June 23, 1812, Britain revoked its restrictions on U.S. trade. However, the news took weeks to cross the Atlantic, and no one in America knew of Britain's decision before war was already declared.

The United States was ill prepared for war. During Jefferson's administration, the army and navy had been slashed. There was little money to rebuild them. Most of America's military officers were aging veterans of the American Revolution. Congress decided that state militias would fight the war. By the end of 1812, "Mr. Madison's War," as it was called, was not going well. Aside from some amazing U.S. victories on the Great Lakes and on the high seas, carried out by two U.S. ships, the Constellation and the Constitution, Britain had the upper hand. Nevertheless, in November 1812, Madison was reelected to a second term.

The low point of the war came in August 1814. The British landed in Chesapeake Bay and marched down the streets of Washington, D.C., burning every public building, including the Capitol and the President's House. Dolley Madison's courageous attempts to save a few American treasures, such as a portrait of George Washington, became legendary. The British next turned on Baltimore and bombarded Fort McHenry. After a long night, the fort held, and Americans rejoiced.

In September 1814, Americans had another victory to celebrate. A small fleet of four ships commanded by thirty-year-old U.S. commodore Thomas Macdonough (1783–1825) turned back a British advance on Lake Champlain in northern New York state. Macdonough's heroic efforts probably saved New York City.

A weary Madison had sent five diplomats to Ghent, Belgium, to begin negotiations with Britain to end the war. The group was led by John Quincy Adams (1767–1848), son of the second U.S. president, John Adams. John Quincy Adams would later become the sixth U.S. president. In the fall of 1814, news of the failed British invasions and the destruction in Washington, D.C., subdued the mood on both sides of the negotiating table in Ghent. Demands stopped, and the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814. News that General Andrew Jackson (1767–1845; see entry in volume 1) had defeated some eight thousand British troops at New Orleans on January 8, 1815, reached Washington, D.C., about the same time as the news of the peace treaty. Some Americans mistakenly thought the victory at New Orleans had spurred the treaty signing. Although the war had essentially ended in a draw, Americans praised Madison for not giving in. Madison and his fellow Americans were eager to move forward to a time of peace and rebuild the Capitol and the economy.

Contented

Madison completed his final two years in Washington in a time of peace and prosperity. Trade with European nations normalized for both New England merchants and American farmers. Madison worked closely with his secretary of state, James Monroe (1758–1831; see entry in volume 2), hoping that Monroe would become the fifth president. In November 1816, Monroe was the third Democratic-Republican to be elected president.

The Madisons packed and returned to Montpelier at the end of March 1817. They hosted many guests in their home. They also spent hours arranging old saved correspondence and writing new letters. Madison rode around his property, taking a greater interest in agriculture than ever before.

Madison visited Jefferson at Monticello as often as he could. When Jefferson died in 1826, Madison succeeded him as head of the University of Virginia, which was founded by Jefferson. Madison also served as president of the American Colonization Society, which advocated sending slaves to Africa to set up their own colony. Disturbed by the increasing unrest over the issue of slavery, he hoped this might be a good solution. Despite the slavery matter, Madison believed the American Revolution, which had begun in 1775, had at last been won. Madison dictated his last public message, "Advice to My Country," to Dolley. He died on June 28, 1836.

For More Information

Books

Brant, Irving. James Madison. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1941-61.

Rakove, Jack N. James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown Higher Education, 1990. Reprint, New York: Longman, 2002.

Rutland, Robert A. James Madison and the Search for Nationhood. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1981.

Rutland, Robert A. James Madison: The Founding Father. New York: Macmillan, 1987. Reprint, Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997.

Rutland, Robert A., ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836:An Encyclopedia. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Wills, Garry. James Madison. New York: Times Books, 2002.