Henry II
Henry II (1133–89), king of England (1154–89). The first of the Plantagenet kings of England was also one of the most able of all this country's monarchs. His achievements are the more remarkable since his responsibilities encompassed not just England, but also two-thirds of France as well, for Henry was also duke of Normandy, count of Anjou, and, by right of his wife Eleanor, duke of Aquitaine. England was but part of the vast Angevin empire, each constituent dominion requiring Henry's attention. The consequence was that Henry was frequently absent from England, as he was from his other lordships. Twice, indeed, he was absent for more than four years at a time, and it has been calculated that in the entire course of the reign he was in France for some 21 years.
The problem of government, and the maintenance of peace and stability, were among the greatest challenges facing Henry when he succeeded in 1154. Nowhere was this more so than in England, since Henry inherited a realm severely affected by the disorder that had occurred in Stephen's reign. He proceeded to restore, and then further develop, the governmental structure inherited from his grandfather Henry I, one which assumed an absentee ruler, authority being delegated to one or more chief justiciars who acted as viceregal figures. But to restore the crown's overall position, including the recovery of lands, offices, and castles lost in Stephen's reign, Henry needed the co-operation of the greater magnates. Equally, it was from this same group of men that Henry demanded the restoration of the crown's rights—a seemingly impossible task. But through a skilful mixture of policies, and using both carrot and stick, Henry attained his end. While bending the magnates to his will, he also succeeded in placating them and finding a place for them in his regime. Hence the remarkable general political stability of England during Henry's reign. Only in 1173–4 did serious unrest occur, in connection with the so-called Great Rebellion in England and France, and even then only a handful of English nobles were involved.
This political settlement helped provide the necessary stable context for a notable extension of the crown's activities, especially through the introduction of the famous assizes. A far greater positive role was being taken by the crown than hitherto, whereby the king's law was becoming truly national in scope, affecting the lives of royal subjects in a new way. Some concerned trade and commerce, such as the assizes of wine, ale, bread, and measures, whilst the Assize of Arms dealt with matters connected with the defence of the realm. But the most significant assizes were those which transformed both civil and criminal law. The grand jury, established by the Assize of Clarendon, would be fundamental in the prosecution of crime until the establishment of the director of public prosecutions in 1879, whilst the civil law reforms established essential procedures and principles that endured for centuries. National in scope, applicable to all freemen of the realm regardless of their feudal position, enshrining uniform rules and procedures, these various reforms marked the opening up of the royal courts as courts of first instance, to the inevitable detriment of the seigneurial courts. It is perhaps ironic that the ‘grandfather of English common law’ was a Frenchman.
It is fortunate that Henry's reign coincided with a great flowering in English historical writing and that men close to Henry penned descriptions of him. Stocky, of medium height, he was robust in his prime but was becoming fat in his later years, not through over-indulgence, because he was moderate in his eating and drinking. In the 1180s, it seems, he was aged beyond his actual years, worn out by the constant travelling and exertions needed to govern the Angevin empire. His remarkable energy and vitality struck everyone, a man who plainly demanded to be in the thick of the action all of the time. ( Louis VII of France, indeed, was said to be so astonished by his movements that he was convinced that Henry could fly.) When not on the move around his dominions, he seldom sat still for long, except to eat or play chess. Even at mass, he scribbled memoranda or whispered on business to courtiers. And like all noblemen, he was addicted to hunting and hawking. Henry lived in the saddle.
He was a man of violent passions, easily moved to anger and outbursts of his famous temper, at times uncontrollable. He was also capable of hatred, most notoriously revealed in his struggle with Thomas Becket. But it seems that much of the threatening side of his nature was deliberately cultivated, stage-managed to get his own way. This was an aspect of his personal statecraft, and he knew how to bind men to him, in respect tinged with fear if not in love. But there was another side to his character, simple, good-hearted fun. He was also quite well educated, applying his intellect to practical matters in the art of government, analysing a problem, and then formulating solutions in association with his advisers.
But one problem he never satisfactorily resolved—the partition of the Angevin empire between his sons. The issue blighted the last 20 years of his life, and poisoned relations within the family. Indeed, he died vanquished, defeated by his son Richard and Philip II of France over that very issue.
The problem of government, and the maintenance of peace and stability, were among the greatest challenges facing Henry when he succeeded in 1154. Nowhere was this more so than in England, since Henry inherited a realm severely affected by the disorder that had occurred in Stephen's reign. He proceeded to restore, and then further develop, the governmental structure inherited from his grandfather Henry I, one which assumed an absentee ruler, authority being delegated to one or more chief justiciars who acted as viceregal figures. But to restore the crown's overall position, including the recovery of lands, offices, and castles lost in Stephen's reign, Henry needed the co-operation of the greater magnates. Equally, it was from this same group of men that Henry demanded the restoration of the crown's rights—a seemingly impossible task. But through a skilful mixture of policies, and using both carrot and stick, Henry attained his end. While bending the magnates to his will, he also succeeded in placating them and finding a place for them in his regime. Hence the remarkable general political stability of England during Henry's reign. Only in 1173–4 did serious unrest occur, in connection with the so-called Great Rebellion in England and France, and even then only a handful of English nobles were involved.
This political settlement helped provide the necessary stable context for a notable extension of the crown's activities, especially through the introduction of the famous assizes. A far greater positive role was being taken by the crown than hitherto, whereby the king's law was becoming truly national in scope, affecting the lives of royal subjects in a new way. Some concerned trade and commerce, such as the assizes of wine, ale, bread, and measures, whilst the Assize of Arms dealt with matters connected with the defence of the realm. But the most significant assizes were those which transformed both civil and criminal law. The grand jury, established by the Assize of Clarendon, would be fundamental in the prosecution of crime until the establishment of the director of public prosecutions in 1879, whilst the civil law reforms established essential procedures and principles that endured for centuries. National in scope, applicable to all freemen of the realm regardless of their feudal position, enshrining uniform rules and procedures, these various reforms marked the opening up of the royal courts as courts of first instance, to the inevitable detriment of the seigneurial courts. It is perhaps ironic that the ‘grandfather of English common law’ was a Frenchman.
It is fortunate that Henry's reign coincided with a great flowering in English historical writing and that men close to Henry penned descriptions of him. Stocky, of medium height, he was robust in his prime but was becoming fat in his later years, not through over-indulgence, because he was moderate in his eating and drinking. In the 1180s, it seems, he was aged beyond his actual years, worn out by the constant travelling and exertions needed to govern the Angevin empire. His remarkable energy and vitality struck everyone, a man who plainly demanded to be in the thick of the action all of the time. ( Louis VII of France, indeed, was said to be so astonished by his movements that he was convinced that Henry could fly.) When not on the move around his dominions, he seldom sat still for long, except to eat or play chess. Even at mass, he scribbled memoranda or whispered on business to courtiers. And like all noblemen, he was addicted to hunting and hawking. Henry lived in the saddle.
He was a man of violent passions, easily moved to anger and outbursts of his famous temper, at times uncontrollable. He was also capable of hatred, most notoriously revealed in his struggle with Thomas Becket. But it seems that much of the threatening side of his nature was deliberately cultivated, stage-managed to get his own way. This was an aspect of his personal statecraft, and he knew how to bind men to him, in respect tinged with fear if not in love. But there was another side to his character, simple, good-hearted fun. He was also quite well educated, applying his intellect to practical matters in the art of government, analysing a problem, and then formulating solutions in association with his advisers.
But one problem he never satisfactorily resolved—the partition of the Angevin empire between his sons. The issue blighted the last 20 years of his life, and poisoned relations within the family. Indeed, he died vanquished, defeated by his son Richard and Philip II of France over that very issue.
S. D. Lloyd
Bibliography
Gillingham, J. B. , The Angevin Empire (1984);
Warren, W. L. , Henry II (1973);
id., The Governance of Norman and Angevin England 1086–1272 (1987).
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Henry II