Starlings and mynas

(Sturnidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Sturnidae

Thumbnail description
Somewhat stocky, small to medium-sized birds, short-winged, short-tailed, stout-legged, with straight bill. Many are black or dark; some have much white or color, many have iridescent plumage; many have colorful bare facial skin or wattles; some are crested

Size
7–17 in (18–43 cm)

Number of genera, species
25–32 genera, 104–118 species

Habitat
Barren semi-desert to grassland, to dry and moist, evergreen and deciduous forest; agricultural and urban areas

Conservation status
Extinct: 5 species; Critically Endangered: 2 species; Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 5 species; Near Threatened: 8 species; Data Deficient: 1 species

Distribution
Naturally distributed through Eurasia and Africa with one genus reaching Australia; center of diversity is in the Old World tropics. As a result of introductions, there are now breeding sturnids on all continents, except South America and Antarctica and on many oceanic islands

Evolution and systematics

Based on anatomical evidence, the closest living relatives of sturnids have been suggested to be drongos (Dicruridae), Old World orioles (Oriolidae), crows (Corvidae), or mimic thrushes (Mimidae). Based on nest structure, other scientists have suggested affinities with weavers (Ploceidae). Several biochemical analyses, including DNA-DNA hybridization studies, support a close relationship between Old World Sturnidae and New World Mimidae, and Sibley and Monroe (1990) included these two groups as tribes (Sturnini: starlings and mynahs; Mimini: mockingbirds, thrashers, catbirds) within the family Sturnidae.

The family Sturnidae, recognized here as starlings, mynas, and oxpeckers, includes about 27 genera and 111 species divided into two subfamilies, the Sturninae (starlings and mynas: 26 genera, 109 species) and the Buphaginae (oxpeckers: 1 genus, 2 species). The number of genera and species recognized is in a great state of flux as a result of many little-known, closely related, geographically variable forms. Added to the inherent diversity in the group are divergent opinions of scientists as to relationships. New technologies and greater knowledge of the behavioral ecology of starlings promise resolution to many systematic questions.

Physical characteristics

Starlings and mynahs are small to medium-sized birds that vary in length from 7–17 in (18–43 cm). The terms starling and myna have no significance relative to their relationships with one another, but rather with the common names applied in different regions. The word starling comes from Old English and almost certainly was applied to what is now known as the European starling. The word myna or mynah comes from the Hindi word maina, which has its origins in the Sanskrit word madana meaning "joyful" or "it bubbles"; this probably refers to the bubbly notes of the hill myna. In practice, the common names of many sturnids have bounced back and forth between being starlings and being mynas. For example, the Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) is often called the Bali starling. In general, however, those sturnids that look more like the European starling are referred to as starlings, and those that look a lot like the common hill myna tend to be called mynas.

Most starlings and mynas are stocky with strong legs and a strong, straight bill, a short squared-off tail, and rounded (in resident and forest species) to somewhat long (in migrant and open country species) wings. While sturnid bills are generally straight and often nearly as long as the head, they range from thin and pointed (e.g., European starling) to heavy and somewhat blunt (e.g., white-eyed starling, Aplonis brunneicapilla). Mynas often show white wing patches on the primaries. Sturnids often have long, narrow hackle feathers on the neck; those of males are generally most distinctive. Juveniles tend to have darker, duller, sometimes streaked plumage. Starlings have only one molt a year, following breeding, but seasonal differences in appearance are found in some species as a result

of wear. The European starling, for example, has white tips to body feathers in fresh plumage, giving a spotted appearance in fall and winter. These tips wear off, leaving the purple-green iridescent black plumage of the breeding season.

Distribution

This family was naturally distributed only in Africa and Eurasia, with a single genus that had reached the South Pacific and northeast Australia. Today, however, the family has breeding populations on every continent, except South America and Antarctica as a result of deliberate introductions and accidental releases of species. The champion among these feathered conquerors is the European starling, which now breeds throughout North America and in Australia, New Zealand, and on many islands.

Habitat

Habitats of sturnids range from barren semi-desert to temperate grasslands, to tropical savanna, to temperate woodlands, to tropical rainforest. The greater numbers of species seem to be associated with forested areas (e.g., Aplonis species), tied to them by their need for cavities as nest sites. Those species that are most wide-ranging and most migratory, however, tend to be ground-feeding, grassland species (e.g., Sturnus species).

Behavior

Most starlings and mynas are at least somewhat social, often nesting in loose colonies. Some are downright gregarious and aggressive, especially some of the introduced species. This has created serious problems for endemic species that share their foraging or nesting niches, and often for local agriculture that has had to contend with their numbers. Associated with their social nature are voices that are loud and varied, though often raucous, sometimes mechanical, and rarely melodious. Many species are excellent mimics.

A few species such as the brown-winged (Aplonis grandis) and Shelley's (Lamprotornis shelleyi) starlings are much more solitary in their nesting, but at least the Shelley's starling still gathers in non-breeding flocks. Solitary species tend to be more shy and quiet.

Starlings have exceptional flight abilities. They are swift, yet highly adept at maneuvering, so much so that dense flocks of starlings can twist and turn as one. Temperate-nesting species often migrate to warmer climates for the winter; migratory flights are accomplished at night.

Most tropical species are more or less forest birds, but some, especially in temperate areas, forsake the trees for very open habitats. The only requisite is that there be some substitute for tree cavities as nest sites. Niches in rocky areas, cavities of other birds in dirt banks, nest boxes, and recesses on buildings and bridges often fill that need.

The soft-part colors of sturnids are important in social circumstances and seasonally vary somewhat in intensity, becoming brighter during the breeding season. Examples include the bill color of the European starling, the blue facial color of the Bali myna, and the yellow wattles of several mynas.

Feeding ecology and diet

Several genera (e.g., Aplonis, Mino, Basilornis, Streptocitta, Ampeliceps) focus their appetite on fruits and berries. Members of the genus Sturnus tend to be more insectivorous, but are very opportunistic. Their northward migrations in spring in the Northern Hemisphere allow them to take advantage of the longer days and the proliferation of insects associated with renewal of plant growth in temperate grasslands. Most species show seasonal shifts in diet, often including an increase in animal food during nesting, thus providing protein for growing nestlings. This is followed by a shift to fruit in late summer, taking advantage of the season's largesse. A few species such as the red-winged starling (Onychognathus morio) are essentially omnivorous, feeding on everything from fruits and insects to grain, dead fish, garbage, and nectar.

A characteristic of starlings that aids in their search for food is a unique probing behavior. A starling probes into the substrate and then opens its bill, pushing the substrate aside, to create an open area in which to look for food. With a starling in hand, when fingers are loosely closed over the bill, the bird, seemingly as a reflex, will open its bill, pushing the fingers away. This behavioral adaptation of starlings is also reflected in adaptations of the muscles and the bony parts of the skull to which those muscles are attached.

Oxpeckers (subfamily Buphaginae) fill a unique foraging niche, removing ticks and flies from the head and neck of large mammals ranging from giraffes and rhinoceroses to cattle. They also often take some blood and tissue from their host, leading to local campaigns to eradicate the birds.

Reproductive biology

Most sturnids are secondary cavity nesters, often somewhat reliant on woodpeckers and barbets for their nest sites. They compensate for an inability to make their own nest cavities with an aggressiveness that often allows them to appropriate newly excavated ones. Other sturnids such as Tristram's red-winged starling (Onychognathus tristramii) make use of niches among rocks, and many have expanded their nest-site preferences to include nest boxes and recesses associated with buildings and other man-made structures.

Once in possession of a cavity, sturnids typically construct a bulky nest of grasses, leaves, fine twigs, and other materials. Sometimes these include man-made objects, and there have been cases of European starlings adding discarded, but lighted, cigarettes to a nest with disastrous results. The amount of material added tends to be whatever it takes to fill the cavity. Redbilled oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus) add the dung of ungulates to their nests. Several species add flowers or green leaves to the nest, and it has been suggested that they may select plants laden with chemicals having insecticidal properties. Both sexes are usually involved in nest construction, and nests may be refurbished and cavities used again and again.

Starling eggs are often pale blue, but sometimes white to cream-colored. They may be solid in color (Acridotheres, Leucopsar, Gracupica, Sturnia, Temenuchus, Pastor, Creatophora, Sturnus) or have dark spots on them (most species in other genera). The occurrence of colored eggs and eggs with spots has been evidence that sturnid ancestors were open-nesting birds and that cavity nesting is a relatively recent secondary development.

In some cases, only the female incubates; in others, both sexes incubate. Incubation periods are sometimes less than two weeks. Sturnid young at hatching are generally pink, at most with sparse patches of down on top of the head and back, and have their eyes closed for the first few days of life. Both parents contribute to feeding the young and, in some species (e.g., the red-billed oxpecker and possibly the babbling starling, Neocichla gutteralis), there are helpers at the

nest who feed the young as well. In such cooperative breeding, the helpers are usually offspring of the same pair from earlier efforts. Nestlings often fledge within three weeks, but young oxpeckers may remain in the nest for nearly a month. Many species can produce two, sometimes three, broods in a year.

Conservation status

At least five starlings have become Extinct within historic times. The Rodriguez starling and Reunion starling, island endemics in the Mascarene Islands, may have disappeared in the eighteenth century. The Kosrae Mountain starling (Aplonis corvine), of Kosrae (Kusai) Island in the Caroline Islands, was first and last seen in 1828. The Norfolk Island starling (Aplonis fusca fusca) is believed to have disappeared in 1925, and its sister race, the Lord Howe Island starling (A. f. hulliana), was last seen in 1919.

The Pohnpei Mountain starling (Aplonis pelzelni), found only on Pohnpei (Ponape) in Micronesia, is considered Critically Endangered and may now be Extinct. The Bali myna is also Critically Endangered, suffering from capture for the cage-bird trade, with only 14 individuals known in the wild in 1998.

The white-eyed starling (Aplonis brunneicapilla) of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands is Endangered and suffers from taking of chicks for food, a practice aided by the colonial nesting of the species. The black-winged starling (Acridotheres melanopterus) of western Indonesia is also Endangered and suffering from the cage-bird trade.

Vulnerable species include the Rarotonga starling (Aplonis cinerascens), atoll starling (Aplonis feadensis), mountain starling (Aplonis santovestris), Abbott's starling (Cinnyricinclus femoralis), and the white-faced starling (Sturnus albofrontatus). The Rarotonga starling from Rarotonga in the Cook Islands is rare and probably numbered fewer than 100 individuals in 1987.

Classified Near Threatened are the Tanimbar starling (Aplonis crassa), yellow-eyed starling (Aplonis mystacea), rusty-winged starling (Aplonis zelandica), helmeted myna (Basilornis galeatus), Apo myna (Basilornis miranda), Sri Lanka myna (Gracula ptilogenys), copper-tailed glossy-starling (Lamprotornis cupreocauda), and the bare-eyed myna (Streptocitta albertinae).

The preponderance of starlings of the genus Aplonis on this list of threatened species is primarily a result of the diversity of this group and the cause of that diversity: isolation on small islands of the South Pacific and Indonesia. With limited habitat, bird populations are also limited. As human populations have grown on these islands, forest habitats have come under intense pressure. The colonial nature of many of the birds has also facilitated use of these birds as food or their capture for the cage-bird trade.

Significance to humans

Many species are of economic importance as agricultural pests. Some, such as the European starling, occur in such numbers in cities that the uric acid from their droppings damages buildings and monuments. Some are considered hazardous to human health because of their large roosting congregations near or in human cities. Many help control insect pests; others help maintain forest tree-species diversity through dispersal of seeds. The ability of many starlings and mynas to mimic the human voice has made them particularly attractive in the cage-bird trade, but starlings and mynas are also often captured for food. A visit to the bird market in any Indonesian city will reveal many starlings and mynas available for small sums. A visit to even major hotels in Indonesia will also reveal burung burung on the menu—birds, including starlings and mynas, are regular fare.

Species accounts

List of Species

White-eyed starling

Aplonis brunneicapilla

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Rhinopsar brunneicapilla Danis, 1938.

other common names

French: Stourne aux yeux blancs; German: Weissaugenstar; Spanish: Estornino de Ojos Blancos.

physical characteristics

11.4–12.6 in (29–32 cm); 2.1–2.6 oz (59–73 g). A purple and greenish glossy bird with whitish eyes, the male has a heavy, high-arched, black bill, a slight crest of short, almost bristle-like feathers, and elongate central tail feathers; female is slightly less iridescent and with a slightly less arched bill. Juvenile has a less robust bill, duller upper plumage, dark eyes and underparts, with streaking on lower breast and belly.

distribution

Papua New Guinea, and Bougainville, Rendova, Choiseul, and Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

habitat

Upland and lowland forest, forest edge, cultivated areas.

behavior

Gregarious both in nesting and feeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet consists primarily of fruit and berries taken in the canopy.

reproductive biology

Colonial cavity nester.

conservation status

Endangered as a result of fragmentation of populations and taking of chicks as food.

significance to humans

Cavity trees reportedly cut down to obtain nestlings as food.

Rarotonga starling

Aplonis cinerascens

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Aplonis cinerascens Hartlaub and Finsch, 1871.

other common names

French: Stourne de Rarotonga; German: Rarotongastar; Spanish: Estornino de Rarotonga.

physical characteristics

8.3 in (21 cm). A chunky gray-brown bird with white undertailcoverts.

distribution

Mountains of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands.

habitat

Undisturbed mountain forests.

behavior

Quiet, inconspicuous, shy, solitary or in pairs, usually found in the forest canopy.

feeding ecology and diet

Sparse data suggest a diet of diverse insects, fruit, and possibly nectar.

reproductive biology

Cavity nester. Only two nests known; nest materials are dried leaves and other plant fibers.

conservation status

Vulnerable; in 1987, the population in the wild was estimated at fewer than 100 birds. Major problems include habitat destruction and predation by introduced black rats.

significance to humans

None known.

Helmeted myna

Basilornis galeatus

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Basilornis galeatus Meyer, 1894.

other common names

English: Greater crested myna, greater myna, crested myna, Sula myna, king myna, greater king starling, Sula starling; French: Basilorne huppé; German: Helmatzel; Spanish; Estornino Real Grande.

physical characteristics

9.4–9.8 in (24–25 cm). Sexes similar; a slightly iridescent black bird with pale yellow bill, large white and buff patches on the side of the neck and breast, and feathers of forehead, crown,

and nape pointed inward with central ones longer to form a distinct iridescent purple-black crest. Juveniles have a shorter, duller crest, a brown chin, and a dark upper bill.

distribution

Banggai east of Sulawesi and the adjacent Sula Islands in the Moluccas.

habitat

Favors undisturbed forest; also found in disturbed and cultivated areas and in mangroves.

behavior

Usually found in pairs, but also flocks; frequents tall trees.

feeding ecology and diet

Only known to take fruit and berries from canopy to midlevels of trees.

reproductive biology

No information.

conservation status

Near Threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Bare-eyed myna

Streptocitta albertinae

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Charitornis albertinae Schlegel, 1866.

other common names

English: Sula myna, Schlegel's myna, Sula magpie, Sula starling, Albertina's starling; French: Streptocitte des Sula; German: Sulaatel; Spanish: Estornino de Sula.

physical characteristics

16.5–17.7 in (42–45 cm). A striking black-and-white bird; white body, nape, and crown to the bill; black face, throat, wings, and very long tail; yellow bill and legs. Sexes similar. Juvenile has forehead mottled with dark brown.

distribution

Sula Islands, Moluccas; sea level to about 750 ft (228 m).

habitat

Cutover and open forest and cultivated areas.

behavior

Little known; usually seen alone, in pairs, or in trios; voice descending and a bit like a squeaky gate.

feeding ecology and diet

No information.

reproductive biology

No information.

conservation status

Near Threatened, probably due to habitat losses.

significance to humans

One found for sale in a market.

Spot-winged starling

Saroglossa spiloptera

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Lamprotornis spiloptera Vigors, 1831.

other common names

French: Étourneau à ailes tachetées; German: Marmorstar; Spanish: Estornino de Alas Moteadas.

physical characteristics

7.5 in (19 cm); weight 1.7 oz (48 g). Slender bird with thin, slightly down-curved bill; male has a chestnut throat, rusty flanks, lighter lower breast and belly, and a textured appearance above resulting from gray feathers on head and back that are bordered by blackish brown; female has pale underparts with brown streaking, somewhat mottled brown back and head. In flight, these birds show white spotting in the middle of each primary feather. Juveniles not well known, but apparently vary and are somewhat lighter in color than adults.

distribution

Foothills of the Himalayas of north-central India; winters from eastern India to Burma and Thailand.

habitat

Open country, forest edge, agricultural land.

behavior

Primarily arboreal, shy, restless. Gives noisy chattering calls reminiscent of mynas. Appears to have an east-west migration within Asia. Flocks sometimes include several hundred birds.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes insects such as ants and termites, sometimes taken in flight; also takes nectar.

reproductive biology

A cavity nester that uses woodpecker and barbet holes in which to build a nest of green leaves and other materials. Nesting is usually April–June. A clutch includes three to four pale gray to blue-green eggs with small reddish brown spots and blotches. No data on incubation or nestling periods.

conservation status

Near Threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Golden-crested myna

Ampeliceps coronatus

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Ampeliceps coronatus Blyth, 1842.

other common names

English: Gold-crested myna; French: Martin couronné; German: Kronenatzel; Spanish: Mainá de Cresta Dorada.

physical characteristics

7.5–8.3 in (19–21 cm); weight 2.8–3.5 oz (78–99 g). Glossy black plumage with yellow crown, crest, orbital skin, throat, and base of primaries. Bill yellow and gray; legs orange-brown.

distribution

South Asia from northeastern India to Burma, northern Malaya, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam; birds in southern China may be escapees.

habitat

Dense lowland evergreen and moist deciduous forest; open forest and cultivated areas with tall trees.

behavior

Favors the forest canopy; usually found in pairs or small groups.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet seems to include primarily fruit, but also insects obtained in the forest canopy.

reproductive biology

A cavity nester; nests found April–May, and juveniles in April–June. The female incubates a clutch of up to four blue-green eggs for about 14–15 days; males may assist in feeding young which fledge at about 25–26 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Hill myna

Gracula religiosa

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Gracula religiosa Linnaeus, 1758. Seven races recognized.

other common names

English: Indian hill mynah, common grackle, grackle, talking mynah; French: Mainate religieux; German: Beo, kleinbeo; Spanish: Mainá del Himalaya.

physical characteristics

11.0–11.8 in (28–30 cm). Black with a heavy orange-yellow bill, feet, and fleshy wattles below each eye and on the nape;

rounded black wings with a white stripe running midway through the primaries.

distribution

Southern Asia; India east to southern China, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indochina, through the Greater and Lesser Sunda islands, east to Alor and Palawan in the Philippines. Population on St. Helena may be introduced; introduced and breeding on Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, and in Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico.

habitat

Found in areas of lush vegetation and high rainfall, especially at edges of lush forest, but also within dense forest, second growth, and cultivated areas; most common at elevations of 900–6,000 ft (275–1,825 m).

behavior

Very arboreal; hop rather than walk; very vocal.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly frugivorous, but also opportunistic, taking nectar, insects, other small animals. Focuses more on animal prey when feeding young. Regurgitates seeds, thus facilitating seed dispersal.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeding varies geographically from January–July; nests in natural cavities and bird boxes; both sexes aid in constructing a crude nest of small twigs, leaves, and feathers. Clutch size two to three light blue to blue-green eggs with brown to lavender spotting; incubation by both sexes for 13–17 days; parental care by both adults; young fledge at 25–28 days; post-fledging care is minimal. May produce as many as three broods per year in some areas.

conservation status

Not threatened. Listed on CITES Appendix II. Some concern over excessive capture of birds for the pet trade.

significance to humans

Once commonly eaten, now a very popular cage bird because of their ability to mimic the human voice. May be important pollinators of forest trees.

Sri Lanka myna

Gracula ptilogenys

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Gracula ptilogenys Blyth, 1846.

other common names

English: Ceylon myna, Sri Lanka hill myna, grackle; French: Mainate de Ceylan; German: Dschungelatzel; Spanish: Mainá de Ceilón.

physical characteristics

9.1–9.8 in (23–25 cm). A small, stubby black myna with a white stripe through the primaries, orange bill that is dark at the base, yellow legs, and a bare yellow nape wattle.

distribution

Sri Lanka lowlands to 6,300 ft (1,920 m).

habitat

Moist forest; also, cultivated areas with trees.

behavior

Gregarious and arboreal, rarely coming to the ground; typically found in pairs in colonies; wings produce a loud humming sound in flight; an excellent mimic of the human voice.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet mainly fruit, especially figs, and seeds.

reproductive biology

Cavity nester, nesting February–May and sometimes in August–September. Cavities sometimes used without nest materials, but a nest of grasses and other materials is usual. Clutch normally includes two Prussian-blue eggs mottled with reddish brown. No information available on parental care.

conservation status

Near Threatened.

significance to humans

Nestlings often taken for the pet trade.

Crested myna

Acridotheres cristatellus

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Gracula cristatella Linnaeus, 1766. Three races recognized.

other common names

English: Chinese jungle myna, Chinese crested myna, Chinese starling, tufted myna; French: Martin huppé; German: Haubenmaina; Spanish: Mainá China.

physical characteristics

8.7–10.2 in (22–26 cm). Sexes similar; black with an ivory bill, orange eye, and longer feathers forming a crest on the lower forehead; juvenile slightly browner, with less of a crest, and blue eyes.

distribution

Lowlands of south Asia; introduced to Malaya, the Philippines (Luzon, Negros), and Vancouver, British Columbia; A. c. cristatellus, eastern Burma to southeast and central China; A. c. brevipennis, Hainan; A. c. formosanus, Taiwan.

habitat

Open country, farmlands.

behavior

Gregarious, but pair members remain obviously together.

feeding ecology and diet

Very opportunistic and somewhat omnivorous; feeds mainly on the ground by inserting the bill into substrate and opening it to probe; also chases insects flushed from ground; some fruit included in the diet; sometimes associated with cattle; known to scavenge on beaches.

reproductive biology

Colonial or solitary cavity nester that uses woodpecker holes, niches on buildings, bird houses, and similar sites. Clutch of four to seven pale blue or blue-green eggs are incubated about 14 days; chicks fledge at about 21 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Often kept as a cage bird.

Common myna

Acridotheres tristis

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Paradisea tristis Linnaeus, 1766. Two races recognized; see distribution.

other common names

English: Indian myna, house myna, common mynah, locust starling, myna; French: Martin triste; German: Hirtenmaina; Spanish: Mainá Común.

physical characteristics

9.1–9.8 in (23–25 cm); weight 2.9–5.0 oz (82–143 g). Sexes similar; a stocky, brown bird with a glossy black head and throat, yellow bill, bare yellow skin behind its eyes, and yellow legs; juveniles are duller.

distribution

Lowlands to 4,500 ft (1,370 m) in southern Asia from southeastern Iran though Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka,

southern China, and Vietnam. Introduced and established in Arabia, South Africa, Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Cook Islands, Society Islands, Hivaoa in the Marquesas Islands, and Hawaii (Midway and from Kauai east). An introduced breeding population on Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands died out. A. t. tristis, most of range; A. t. melanosternus, Sri Lanka.

habitat

Open habitats including farmlands, cities.

behavior

Tame, bold, and noisy; usually seen in pairs or small flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds mainly on ground on insects, but takes small vertebrates, carrion, occasionally eggs and nestlings of other birds, fruit, and grain.

reproductive biology

Builds bulky nest in tree cavities, niches on buildings, and in dense vegetation. Clutch of four to five glossy, pale blue eggs is incubated by both parents for 13–18 days; young leave the nest as early as 22 days, but may not be able to fly for another week or more.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Considered a pest in Australia where noisy winter roosts of several thousand can occupy city trees and buildings, and also a pest in many areas where it seasonally may take grain or fruit.

Black-winged myna

Acridotheres melanopterus

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Gracula melanoptera Daudin, 1800.

other common names

English: Black-winged starling, white-breasted starling; French: Étourneau á ailes noires; German: Schwarzflügelstar; Spanish: Estornino de Alas Negras.

physical characteristics

8.7–9.4 in (22–24 cm). Sexes alike; a mostly white myna with black wings and tail; bases of primaries are white, showing as a white stripe in the wing of a flying bird; black tail has white-tipped feathers; yellow bill, flesh around eye, and feet. Juvenile has a gray crown, nape, and mantle.

distribution

Java, Bali, and Lombok in western Indonesia.

habitat

Open country around human habitations and cultivated areas.

behavior

Arboreal in some areas, but also spends a lot of time on the ground; roosts communally in trees.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes fruit and insects taken from trees, shrubs, and ground.

reproductive biology

A colonial cavity nester naturally nesting in holes among rocks or in trees.

conservation status

Endangered. Capture for the cage bird trade is the most significant cause of this species' decline; pesticide use also considered a problem. May compete with the critically Endangered Bali myna with which it now coexists.

significance to humans

Commonly sold in markets on Java.

Bali myna

Leucopsar rothschildi

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Leucopsar rothschildi Stresemann, 1906.

other common names

English: Bali starling, Rothschild's myna, Rothschild's starling, white starling; French: Martin de Rothschild; German: Balistar; Spanish: Mainá de Bali.

physical characteristics

9.8 in (25 cm). White body, feathers of lower forehead are bristle-like, feathers of nape and crown long and slender to form a crest that can be raised, especially in males; white tail and primaries have black tips; bright light-blue bare skin around eye; bill gray, yellow towards tip. Juveniles similar to adults, sometimes with gray wash on back and cinnamon tinge on wings.

distribution

Northwest Bali, Indonesia.

habitat

Open woods with grassy understory.

behavior

Strongly arboreal, but will come to the ground for food, water, and bathing; can be gregarious outside of breeding season.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes seeds, fruit, insects and other invertebrates and small vertebrates.

reproductive biology

Breeds during the rainy season (January–March); cavity nester that uses old woodpecker holes or nest boxes. Clutch includes two to three pale blue eggs; incubation mostly by female lasts 12–14 days; young fed by both parents and fledge at 21–28 days; parental care continues for about five weeks.

conservation status

Listed under CITES Appendix I; Critically Endangered under IUCN criteria. In 1925, hundreds could be seen; by 1976, 127 were counted; as of 1998, only 14 birds were known in the wild. Many zoos have this species, and there are strong captive breeding programs, but habitat deterioration and poaching for the pet trade continue to threaten the species.

significance to humans

Valued in the pet trade.

Rosy starling

Sturnus roseus

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Turdus roseus Linnaeus, 1758, Lapland and Switzerland.

other common names

English: Rose-colored starling, rosy pastor; French: Étourneau roselin; German: Rosenstar; Spanish: Estornino Rosado.

physical characteristics

7.5–9.1 in (19–23 cm); weight 2.1–3.1 oz (60–88 g). Black head to upper back, chin to base of throat, wing feathers, tail, and vent. Pale rosy back, breast, and abdomen. Bill ivory-yellow.

distribution

South-central Eurasia; generally found where locust swarms are regular; winters primarily in India, but wanders widely.

habitat

Found in semi-desert areas with thorn bushes; other barren areas, including industrial sites, agricultural areas, lawns, and pastures.

behavior

Migrant; very gregarious. This is often a roadside bird, coming to puddles to bathe and drink as well as to bare areas to feed.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes primarily insects, especially grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts, but also grapes, mulberries, and other fruit. It often feeds in association with cattle.

reproductive biology

Nests colonially in holes among rocks, in walls, or similar sites. In some studies, young were fed almost exclusively crickets and grasshoppers.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Long recognized for helping to control locust swarms. Sometimes hailed for eating locusts in the spring and hated for taking grapes in the summer.

European starling

Sturnus vulgaris

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus, 1758. Twelve races recognized.

other common names

English: Common starling, northern starling, English starling, purple-winged starling, starling; French: Étourneau sansonnet; German: Star; Spanish: Estornino Pinto.

physical characteristics

8.3–8.7 in (21–-22 cm); weight 2.0–3.7 oz (58–105 g). A purple-green iridescent, short-tailed black bird with a long thin bill that changes seasonally from black in winter to yellow during nesting. Following the fall molt, starlings are very spotted with white as a result of white-tipped body feathers. As the winter progresses, the white tips wear off little by little so that, during courtship, the birds show mostly the iridescent black with little spotting. Males have longer, narrower hackle feathers and, during nesting season, a blue base to the bill, while females have a pink base to the bill. Juveniles are gray-brown with a streaked breast and dark bill.

distribution

Most of temperate Eurasia from Iceland east. Introduced and established in South Africa, Polynesia (Fiji, Tonga), Australia, New Zealand, Bermuda, North America (from coast to coast, and southern Alaska into Mexico), Jamaica, and Puerto Rico. It has been seen in Hawaii, but has not become established there.

habitat

Open country, open woods, urban and suburban areas.

behavior

An aggressive competitor for woodpecker cavities and nest boxes, as well as for niches on buildings; roosts in flocks that sometimes number in the millions. Is a good vocal mimic, often mimicking other birds, but can be taught to mimic the human voice.

feeding ecology and diet

Characteristically feeds on the ground, often in large flocks; takes a diversity of insects, other arthropods, grain, and fruit.

reproductive biology

Can be a solitary or loosely colonial nester, nests March–May in Northern Hemisphere, September–December in South Africa. A serious competitor for woodpecker cavities and nest boxes with many cavity nesting birds, especially where it has been introduced. Clutch of three to six pale blue eggs is incubated by the female for 11–15 days. Young are fed by both parents and fledge at 20–21 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Consumes a lot of harmful insects and weed seeds. Its introduction into North America was a result of the desire of a homesick immigrant to the United States deciding to introduce to North America all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare. He began with the European starling, which is mentioned in Henry IV; the rest is history. Judgment is generally tipped against the starling as a result of its enormous winter flocks, proclivity for close association with humans, building messy nests on buildings, taking grain and fruit, and competing with songbirds and woodpeckers for nest sites.

Copper-tailed glossy-starling

Lamprotornis cupreocauda

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Lamprocolius cupreocauda Hartlaub, 1857. Considered closely related to Lamprotornis purpureiceps and some consider these as variants of the same species.

other common names

English: Coppery-tailed glossy-starling; French: Choucador à queu bronzée; German: Kupferglanzstar; Spanish: Estornino de Cola Cobriza.

physical characteristics

7.1–8.3 in (18–21 cm); weight 1.9–2.3 oz (53–66 g). Dark blue-violet glossy plumage with copper-brown tail feathers and blackish bill and legs. Juvenile is sooty brown with a slight purple gloss on the crown and a tinge of glossy green on upper parts.

distribution

West Africa from Sierra Leone to Ghana.

habitat

Mature lowland forest canopy in both primary and cutover forest; especially riverine forest.

behavior

Endemic resident. Seen in flocks of up to 50 birds; sometimes joins mixed-species flocks; flight swift and direct.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes fruit, especially figs, and insects found in the forest canopy.

reproductive biology

Nest and eggs unknown, but adults have been seen at holes in dead trees in October and fledged young seen in December; adult also seen with three fledged young in February.

conservation status

Near Threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Magpie starling

Speculipastor bicolor

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Speculipastor bicolor Reichenow, 1879, Kenya.

other common names

English: Pied starling; French: Spreó pie; German: Spiegelstar; Spanish: Estornino Urraca.

physical characteristics

7.5 in (19 cm); weight 2.2–2.4 oz (61–69 g). Blackish head, throat, and upperparts with blue sheen; underparts white. Juvenile dark brown above with paler crown and cheeks, a dark breast band, and buff-white belly.

distribution

Northeast Africa, including Somalia, southern Ethiopia, northeastern Uganda, Kenya.

habitat

Dry savanna and acacia.

behavior

Shrill whistling flight call; gather at food trees; apparently migrant, though may be nomadic; some remain year round.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet is primarily fruit, especially figs, and insects.

reproductive biology

Nests of grass and leaves are placed in cavities in termite mounds or in banks; clutch of three to five blue-green eggs incubated by female for about 18 days; both parents feed nestlings; young fledge at about 21 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-winged starling

Onychognathus morio

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Turdus morio Linnaeus, 1766, Cape of Good Hope.

other common names

English: Redwing, African red-winged starling; French: Rufipenne morio; German: Rotschwingenstar; Spanish: Estornino de Alas Rojas Africano.

physical characteristics

10.6–12.2 in (27–31 cm); weight 4.1–5.6 oz (117–158 g). Dark plumage with dark blue sheen. Reddish brown primaries. Eyes red. Juvenile similar to adult male, but less glossy and with brown eyes and bill.

distribution

East and southeast Africa, from Kenya to South Africa; most common at 3,000–7,500 ft (915–2,285 m).

habitat

Rocky hills in savanna, now commonly nests in urban areas.

behavior

Endemic resident. Gathers in flocks that can at times exceed 1,000 birds.

feeding ecology and diet

Somewhat omnivorous; eats fruits of many trees, but also takes nectar, insects, other arthropods, and small vertebrates, including nestlings of other birds.

reproductive biology

Cavity nester. Clutch of two to four blue eggs with red-brown spots is incubated mainly by the female for 13–14 days. Hatchlings are pink with tufts of gray down on top of the head and mid-back. Both adults feed nestlings until they fledge at 22–28 days. Nest sites are often reused.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Kenrick's starling

Poeoptera kenricki

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Paeoptera [sic] kenricki Shelley, 1894, Tanganyika. Sometimes considered conspecific with Poeoptera stuhlmanni.

other common names

French: Rufipenne de Kenrick; German: Kenrickstar; Spanish: Estornino de Kenrick.

physical characteristics

5.9 in (15 cm); weight 1.3–1.9 oz (38–54 g). Dark plumage with dark brownish wings and olive-gray sheen. Bill and legs black. Eyes yellow. Juvenile is similar to adult female, but duller and more sooty on the body.

distribution

Disjunct populations in mountains of East Africa in central Kenya and northeastern Tanzania.

habitat

Forest canopy in high rainfall areas.

behavior

Endemic resident. Social, traveling in noisy flocks, but does not join mixed-species flocks. Apparently nomadic, sometimes visits isolated forest areas.

feeding ecology and diet

Primarily frugivorous; favors figs (Ficus); stays in forest canopy to mid-canopy.

reproductive biology

Cavity nester that uses old woodpecker or barbet holes; no details; laying suggested to be mainly in October.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Babbling starling

Neocichla gutteralis

subfamily

Sturninae

taxonomy

Crateropus gutturalis Barbosa du Bocage, 1871, Angola. Two races are recognized.

other common names

French: Spréo à gorge noire; German: Weissflügelstar; Spanish: Estornino de Alas Blancas.

physical characteristics

8.7–9.4 in (22–24 cm); weight 2.3–2.5 oz (64–72 g). Gray brown head with dark wings and tail; white wing patches are conspicuous in flight. Black throat patch and buff underparts. Eyes yellow.

distribution

Disjunct populations known from western Angola (N. g. gutturalis) and Zambia west to northwestern Malawi, and in central and southwestern Tanzania (N. g. angusta).

habitat

Open Brachystegia woodland with open understory.

behavior

Found in pairs and small flocks; usually seen on the ground.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on and close to the ground on a diversity of insects, especially termites and beetles; forages by running and searching; often forages just after sunset.

reproductive biology

Apparently a cooperative breeder. Nests in tree cavities lined with lichens, moss, and grass; clutch size from one nest was two smooth white eggs with red-brown spots on a bluish base; nestlings have been found in October–November.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-billed oxpecker

Buphagus erythrorhynchus

subfamily

Buphaginae

taxonomy

Tanagra erythrorhyncha Stanley, 1814, Ethiopia.

other common names

French: Piqueboeuf à bec rouge; German: Rotschnabel-Madenhacker; Spanish: Picabuey de Pico Rojo.

physical characteristics

7.5–8.7 in (19–22 cm); weight 1.5–2.1 oz (42–59 g). Olive-brown above, tan on rump and breast; red bill and eyes with conspicuous yellow flesh around the eyes. Juveniles have a dark bill and eyes and brown area around the eyes.

distribution

East and southeast Africa with a highly fragmented distribution from western Central African Republic, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia, south in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, eastern and southern Zaire to northern and eastern South Africa.

habitat

Open savanna areas in association with large mammals, including domestic livestock, up to about 9,000 ft (2,745 m).

behavior

Endemic resident. Intimately associated with large mammals and, in different areas, different hosts seem to be preferred; usual perch and site of feeding is on the head and neck.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on ticks and biting flies plucked from host and on host blood and tissues. Apparently, the birds do not make wounds on the animals, but take blood from existing wounds.

reproductive biology

Cooperative breeders; courtship often takes place on the backs of host mammals. Breeding occurs at different times in different areas, often associated with beginning of rainy season, and has been reported in all months. Nest of grasses lined with hair and dung is in a natural tree cavity. Clutch size two to five creamy white eggs with brown to lilac speckles; incubation by both parents for 12–13 days; feeding of nestlings is done by parents and helpers; young fledge at about 30 days and are independent about a month later.

conservation status

Not threatened; dipping of livestock in pesticides to control pests seems to be associated with declines in oxpecker numbers in some areas.

significance to humans

Perform a service for livestock owners, but this has often not been recognized; evidence suggests some negative impacts and oxpecker extermination programs have been carried out in some areas.

Resources

Books

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, 2000.

Cramp, S., and C.M. Perrins, eds. The Birds of the Western Palearctic, Vol. 8. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Feare, C. The Starling. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Feare, C., and A. Craig. Starlings and Mynas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Fry, C.H., S. Keith, and E.K. Urban. The Birds of Africa, Vol. 6. New York, NY: Academic Press, 2000.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp. A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Hollom, P.A.D., R.F. Porter, S. Christensen, and I. Willis. Birds of the Middle East and North Africa. London, England: Poyser, 1988.

Lever, C. Naturalised Birds of the World. London, England: Longmans, 1987.

Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Sibley, C.G., and B.L. Monroe, Jr. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Periodicals

Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. "The Relationships of the Starlings (Sturnidae: Sturnini) and the Mockingbirds (Sturnidae: Mimini)." Auk 101 (1984): 230–243.

Jerome A. Jackson, PhD