Italy

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Italian Republic
Region:	Europe
Population:	57,634,327
Language(s):	Italian, German, French,Slovene
Literacy Rate:	98%
Academic Year:	September-June
Number of Primary Schools:	20,361
Compulsory Schooling:	8 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	4.9%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	24,858
Libraries:	2,155
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 2,816,128
	Secondary: 4,708,406
	Higher: 1,775,186
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 101%
	Secondary: 95%
	Higher: 47%
Teachers:	Primary: 251,827
	Secondary: 461,776
	Higher: 70,342
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 11:1
	Secondary: 11:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 100%
	Secondary: 95%
	Higher: 52%

History & Background

Italy is a parliamentary republic divided into 20 autonomous territorial regions. Each region is divided into provinces. Italian is the official language for the majority of Italy's 57.6 million inhabitants; however, regions with localized languages are considered "special status regions," and resources are provided to meet the educational needs of those living in these areas. Roman Catholicism is the most popular religion, but there is no official state religion. After experiencing political disunity from the fifth to the nineteenth century, Italy began unification in 1859 with the seizing of Lombardy from Austria.

As a member of the European community, Italy has become increasingly globalized and its population reflects the diversity of immigrant cultures and languages. The role of schools has expanded to accommodate the needs of changing demographics. In the nineteenth century there was a high degree of illiteracy among the Italian population, especially in the southern region, notably in Sicily. As Italy shifted from agricultural to industrial society, schools became increasingly more important to the socioeconomic and cultural development of the country in the twentieth century. In the new millennium, Italian schools are emphasizing literacy skills for a post-industrial global democracy.

Educational institutions, including religious, Catholic based and other private schools, had always been available to the ruling classes. The oldest university in Europe was established in Bologna in 1158.

Italian public education can be traced to 1859 when law 3725 mandated four years of free, compulsory elementary education and the Casati Law centralized the Italian educational system. In 1904, law 407 extended compulsory education, mandating all children through age twelve to attend schools. At the same time, the Italian governments recognized the needs of a more industrialized society and implemented vocational training.

In 1923, the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades were separated from elementary school and became scuole di avviamento (technical schools). Compulsory education was extended by two years. Elementary schooling, which was divided into three lower grades and two upper grades, continued until approximately 1957. Giardini d'infanzia (kindergartens) were established by a 1923 royal decree, but they were not officially operated until 1968.

During the fascist era (1922-1943), Ministry of Education and provveditori (provincial inspectors) controlled Italy's educational system and dictated the rigid curriculum and policy. Municipalities had very limited power. Elementary schools were allowed a more creative curriculum and upper secondary students were encouraged to engage in historical-critical inquiry, but the main emphasis was on standardized curriculum and methodology.

Since the 1950s, the Italian school system has undergone profound changes. Decentralization of administration has increased. Syllabi and curriculum have been revised, and teaching methodology has improved. Teachers have greater roles as instructional leaders in the educational process. Inservice training and other means of professional development provide educators with current information in their fields of specialization.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

In 1859, before the unification of Italy, the Legge Casati (Casati Law) established the provisions for the organization of state education. The law included five sets of regulations dealing with higher education, upper secondary classical education, technical education, primary education and normal schools (for elementary teacher preparation). This system called for highly centralized administration and a clear division of upper secondary education between the liceo classico (a pre-university requirement) and vocational, "utilitarian" secondary schools for practical job training. The Coppino law introduced compulsory schooling in lower primary grades.

The 1923 Gentile reform legislation made the following provisions: preschool (nursery school) was neither compulsory nor free; five-year-olds must attend primary schools, which were divided into two groups or cycles; lower secondary education had six different institutions; upper secondary education had five different institutions; and higher education included state-funded universities and private universities.

Radical school reform occurred as a result of the fall of fascism and the 1948 constitution that espoused democratic principles. The basic principles of education were established by the Italian Constitution, which emphasizes freedom of education; the nation/state's responsibility for providing educational institutions at various levels; education for all individuals regardless of background; parental responsibility for educating children; and financial resources for needy students to pursue higher education. Article 33 states that teaching about arts and sciences shall be free and open to all and that the republic shall establish the general educational principles and create state [public] schools of all levels. Article 33 reaffirms that schooling must be compulsory and free, but it allows private schools to be established as long as they meet all requirements and standards of public schools. This article also allows institutions of higher learning to be established autonomously within the limits of the law.

The first paragraph of Article 34 ensures that schools shall be open to all citizens and, like a portion of Article 33, emphasizes educational equality. This article provides for government scholarships for needy students. Article 117 establishes regional authority over vocational education (except those requiring higher education).

Some laws governing Italian education include law 1054, which relates to nursery school education (giardini d'infanzia, scuole materne ); law 653, which addresses school exams; and law 503, which is concerned the elementary school curriculum for scuole elementari. During the 1960s, a number of laws reformed Italy's educational system: law 444 applied to preschool education; law 1895 established middle schools (scuole media ); law 119 modified school examples; law 910 opened universities to upper secondary (liceum ) students, including those attending non-university track upper secondary institutions; and in 1961 a law made technical colleges more flexible so they could more easily adapt to technology advances.

Legislation passed in the 1970s led to significant educational reforms. Law 477 provided for the legal status of state school personnel, the establishment of school assemblies, and the implementation of experimental educational methodologies. Law 517 regulated teaching in elementary and secondary schools, student assessment, and integration of special needs students. Because of this legislation, evaluation of students' progress no longer relied exclusively on exam grades; teachers' analyses of students' progress and development were also included. Teacher-designed lessons were required to accommodate the needs of individual students and include remediation for special needs students.

Additional reforms in the 1970s focused on the structuring of schools and schooling to meet the needs of a growing global labor market. Curricula included the study of science, math, and languages. Student exchange programs were initiated and expanded. Teaching pedagogy and content, program criteria, and modes of student assessment were revised and updated. Inservice training for teachers encouraged them to become "transformational leaders."

Two key pieces of reform legislation were passed in the 1980s. Law 270 provided regulation regarding the legal status of teachers, recruitment, and training, and Law 168 established the Ministry for University of Scientific and Technological Research.

In the 1990s there were a number of new laws and presidential decrees relating to education. Law 148 reformed elementary education. Law 341 reformed the university teaching. Law 104 continued to emphasize the integration of handicapped students in school. Law 59, passed in 1997, reformed public administration and simplified school administrative procedures; implemented in 2000-2001, these regulations granted wider educational, organizational, and research autonomy to schools.

Several presidential decrees directly related to portions of Law 59: decree 275 established strict regulations concerning the number of students per class; decree 233 regulated territorial organization of schools; decree 258 ordered reorganization of the Educational Documentation library in Florence and the European Center for Education; decree 300 provided for the reform of Regional Institutes for Research, Experimentation and In-Service Training (IRRSAE); and decree 112 introduced strong education decentralization from the Ministry of Education to provincial and local authorities.

University autonomy has also been widened. Law 425 reformed state exams for higher education, and Law 9, passed in 1999, re-emphasized the need for compulsory education and extended it to 10 years.

In 2000, some legislative issues addressed the equity and equality of education between public and private schooling. Other legislative concerns targeted changes in Italy's education system that would better prepared its citizens to enter the twenty-first century job market.

Educational System—Overview

Basic Italian educational principles are constitutionally founded and ensure free, compulsory educational opportunity for all children. The Italian educational system's philosophy of education varies from teacher centered to student centered. The highly standardized curriculum was designed to facilitate school transfer in both public and private schools. There has been a gradual shift from rote memory assignments and assessments to less formal methods, which stress creativity and the application of critical inquiry and higher order thinking skills. In 1989 all issues related to higher education were transferred to the Ministry for Universities and Scientific Research.

The Italian educational system provides nursery school for 3- to 5-year-olds; elementary school for 6- to 11-year-olds; lower secondary or middle school for 11- to 14-year-olds; upper secondary school or vocational training for 15- to 18- or 19-year-olds; and university, university institutes, or Fine Arts academies for those 19 and older. Upper secondary schools include classic or scientific high schools (five years) leading to higher education/university studies; artistic (four years); technical school (five years); vocational school (five years or more); nursery school and primary teacher training (three years); and higher/university education (three to five years).

The overall responsibility for education in Italy rests with two bodies: the Ministry of Public Instruction for preschool, primary, and secondary education and the Ministry for Universities and Scientific Research. There are close links between these two ministries and the Finance Ministry regarding budget matters and the Labor and Social Security Ministry for connecting schooling with the world of work. Educational reform continues in Italy with its main focus on the role of the ministries regarding policy, budget, curriculum, pedagogy, and administration or distribution of responsibilities.

Since the late 1950s, educational responsibilities and services have become gradually decentralized, and in 1972 many of the Ministry of Public Instruction's administrative powers were transferred to regional and local authorities. Since 1975 regions have had the primary responsibility for vocational education and training; they have consulted with the Ministry of Labor to ensure the appropriate programs and training are being provided. In 1985 pedagogical and programs guidelines were established for elementary and lower elementary school. Since 1999, all citizens aged 6 to 16 years must attend a compulsory education program. Parents have the option of sending their children to school or providing compulsory education themselves or employing a tutor. Those parents who assume direct responsibility for their children's education must file yearly reports with the Provincial Director of Education documenting their compliance with the established curriculum, and the children must pass state exams. A very small percentage of parents select for this type of education.

Student attendance is the responsibility of head teachers (direttore didattico ) who are the equivalent of school principals in the United States. The mayor of each comune or township provides head teachers with lists of all children who, according to the General Registry Office, should be enrolled in school. When children complete their elementary education, head teachers are responsible for transferring students to lower secondary or middle schools. Head teachers contact parents of children not attending schools; non-compliance with attendance policies can result in punishment for parents or guardians.

Major reforms have taken place within the Italian school system to meet the needs of global education in the European Community and find educational compatibility within member nations. A Ministry of Public Instruction decree states that the study of other languages is essential for educational and professional development. Elementary schools were reorganized to include the study of modern languages, which are essential for effective communication and educational mobility within the European community. Middle and upper secondary school curricula include the study of foreign languages. Italians also realize that the study of languages and cultures are essential to meet the needs of immigrant populations as well as to encourage active, participatory citizenship in a global democracy.

This European dimension of education can be traced to Comenius (1592-1670), the Czech philosopher of education, who was concerned with schools as democratic arenas of intellectual discourse. His philosophy emphasized political unity, religious reconciliation, and educational cooperation. Initiatives of the European dimension on education include promoting equivalence of academic diplomas and mobility; fostering cooperation in education and research among universities; re-examining school curriculum, organization, exit exams, guidance and counseling, and extra-curricular activities.

A resolution from the European Community outlined objectives for strengthening the European dimension in education: to give young people a sense of European identity in the context of history and culture, and especially in safeguarding universal values of democracy, social justice, and human rights; to encourage youth to become full participants and contributing members in the European Community; and to point out the advantages and the challenges of European citizenship and cooperation in intercultural understanding The European dimension in education includes awareness of European citizenship in an interdependent world; the importance of building relationships; the involvement of extracurricular activities.

Educational legislative provisions are made within member countries of the European Community. EURYDICE, the Italian agency at the Library of Pedagogical Documentation, has strengthened its commitment for an integrative effort to publish and disseminate international information and documentation to benefit members of the European community. Italy cooperates with member countries on exchanges of classes, students, and teachers, as well as other educational initiatives and cultural agreements. Students who are citizens of the European community may attend school in Italy for professional education and training. The Office of Cultural Exchange at the Ministry of Public Instruction had directed its efforts to activities toward wide-ranging cooperative projects. A pilot project connected 300 territorial schools to the Internet so students would have international access to information and educational opportunities.

Educational cooperative efforts include implementing instructional reform, establishing school age levels of entry and exit, providing professional training courses for secondary students, reinforcing language acquisition, reducing the number of dropouts, providing student guidance and orientation, and organizing programs of equivalency, mobility, and exchange. Programs like SOCRATES, ERASMUS, and LEONARDO are essential to the development of quality education across members of the European Community. The ministries of education have increased a financial commitment to participate in the European education dimension.

An efficient service of pedagogical documentation, information, and research is needed to promote and develop autonomous projects within existing cooperative networks. Important aspects of the European dimension of education are to facilitate and integrate the process of communication, to provide for the service of information, and to ensure the dissemination of research results throughout regions, provinces, and countries in the European Community.

Intercultural education has become an essential component of the Italian educational system at all levels of schooling to create a new awareness of the European dimension in citizenship. These school programs define the dimensions of socialization by providing opportunities for students to come into contact with cultures and languages different from Italian society and to learn to become world citizens. The Italian educational system promotes cultural pluralism in the curriculum by encouraging students to develop a healthy sense of respect for cultural differences and to approach the study of issues from a multiple perspective, while maintaining universal values of social justice and equity.

Since 1985 primary schools have stressed instructional objectives that deal with the importance of inter-cultural education emphasizing the need for understanding and cooperating with culturally different persons to prevent the danger of stereotyping and prejudice. In 1991 these objectives became part of nursery school education where the term multicultural education was introduced and stressed the importance of identifying, recognizing, and valuing cultural diversity in school and global, democratic societies.

Secondary schools have had less direction from the state in incorporating multicultural awareness in the curriculum; however, there are initiatives included in educational objectives and curriculum to integrate intercultural communication and understanding, as well as develop multiples ways of thinking critically. A 1994 ministry educational decree emphasizes the need for providing multicultural awareness and activities as a global response to a society that is becoming increasingly multicultural. This decree also reinforces the rights of immigrant and migrant children to equal opportunity and equity of access to education and training.

Italy participates in European network projects created for intercultural and multicultural education. Many of these programs, coordinated by the Office of Cultural Exchange, are specifically designed for teacher training in intercultural and teaching and learning for a multicultural society, including bilingual education and teaching of Italian to immigrant students. The Office of Cultural Exchange published a report, "Intercultural Education: Experiences and Prospects," which gives an overall picture of the theoretical and practical aspects of intercultural and multicultural education and highlighting the importance of cross-cultural communication for global democracies.

In 1996 the central role of the European dimension in education was reaffirmed; schools will continue stressing intercultural awareness and understanding for a global society. Information and experiential opportunities for intercultural education issues and opportunity for international educational exchanges and multilateral school partnerships within the European Community are exemplified in programs like SOCRATES, LEONARDO, and ERASMUS. An increasing number of students participate in these programs throughout Europe. For example, Italian students enrolled in an agricultural course may be permitted to study in France or Portugal for one year and receive equivalency in mobility, credits, and grades.

A 1998 educational decree ensures that immigrant children in Italy must receive compulsory education, have access to information, and have all the rights to education services in the school and community. The school community respects the cultural and linguistic diversity of its members, encourages the sharing of cultural differences, and promotes mutual respect and tolerance. The school community promotes and encourages initiatives to respect and protect the culture and language diversity and provides opportunities for intercultural experiences and activities.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Schooling usually begins with noncompulsory early childhood education or nursery school for children aged three to five. Nursery school education is free for public institutions. As more women enter the workforce, more government sponsored and private childcare facilities are available for infants and young children. In 2000, approximately 96 percent of three to five year olds attended public or private nursery schools (Scuola Materna, Scuola dell'Infanzia, and Giardini d'Infanzia ). At age six, children enter free, compulsory elementary schools (Scuola Elementare or Scuola Primaria ), which last five years.

Nursery school teachers emphasize activities that enhance creativity skills, social attitudes, autonomy, and the learning process; children are readied for elementary school. Often children are placed in classes by developmental level, rather than age. Schools must accommodate students with special needs. Most classes have 25 students. Teachers are responsible for allocating the necessary hours and activities to meet the educational objectives. In 1992-1993 there were 27,274 preschools with approximately 1,569,811 students and 75,601 teachers. In September 2000, preprimary schools were given the autonomy in terms of organization, pedagogy, and curriculum, as long as the schools complied with the general objectives of the national educational system. Educational objectives for early childhood education include the interaction of culture and language with identity, autonomy, and competence. Curriculum includes body and movement; language (speech and words); spatial orientation and order of things; time and nature; and the self and relationship to others. There is a similarity between Italian and American early childhood curriculum and pedagogy; both have the goal of preparing children to become members of a democratic society.

Early childhood education in Italy has become world famous. The Reggio Emilia schools have become "laboratories" studied and modeled by teachers from many countries, especially the United States. The philosophical model of Reggio Emilia nursery schools and kindergartens focuses on constructivist theoretical foundations that emphasize a learner-centered curriculum and teaching methodology. These preschools link their practices to the theoretical perspectives of John Dewey, a progressive American educator.

The Reggio Emilia schools create an educational world in which children work and play in communities and learn to respect other persons and divergent points of view. Teachers guide children through critical inquiry. Many of the activities include building structural art objects that require critical thinking skills using linguistic and mathematical processes and the ability to work in cooperative groups. The curriculum includes long-term projects in a variety of media that foster connections between school and the home, family, and community and develop awareness and appreciation for regional, national, global cultural heritage.

Another influential early childhood theorist was Maria Montessori, the well-known Italian educator, who believed that children could learn math and language skills by applying knowledge. Her philosophy, curriculum and teaching methods have given impetus to Montessori schools in the United States and other countries. Montessori concentrated on the goal and process of education, rather than its methods. She defined the educational process as the development of the total human being in relationship to the environment and cultural context. Montessori believed that schooling should correspond to each child's developmental stage. She wrote that children begin exploring the world around them at birth, gradually moving from sensory to cognitive awareness.

In Montessori schools, children are introduced to materials in a sequential and logical progression. They are taught that freedom implies responsibility, self-discipline and working cooperatively with others. Montessori educational materials are designed for exploration and self-discovery. Academic study must have long, uninterrupted blocks of time to allow students to explore, reflect, and problem solve. For Montessori, the ultimate goal of education for a young adult is to develop within the individual the desire for life-long learning.

In 1985 and 1990 there were educational reforms regarding the curriculum and structure of primary education and its connection to preschool. Legislation in 1985 promoted early literacy and the development of the individual child. A 1990 law called for curricular connections between primary school activities with those of preschool and lower secondary school. These links encourage consistency of curriculum, pedagogy, and student cognitive development.

In 1999, compulsory education was extended to 10 years. Students begin the mandatory program when they are six-years-old. Primary/elementary schools (Scuola Elementare or Scuola Primaria ), which can be public or private, must follow some national educational regulations; however, the 1997 Bassanini law 59 allows some freedom in curricular and pedagogical structure. The number of number of hours spent in class varies; students may attend classes for 27, 30, or 40 hours per week. Teachers have the autonomy and opportunity to design flexible curricula that meet student needs and national educational objectives. They ensure that the curricula includes examples from the European perspective, develop cross-cultural activities with a European focus, and establish contacts with other schools via pen pal and other programs.

Schools are required to provide students' families with an instructional plan describing subjects and activities for regular and optional curriculum; student assessment methods; research and experimentation activities; and the role of teachers in the school organization. Support is given to special needs students. The inclusion of learning disabled students provides all children with an opportunity for understanding and respecting differences.

Children usually attend schools closest to their home. Most classes have 25 students, but schools are established when there are 10 or more children of compulsory education age. The school year has a total of 200 days per year. It begins in September and ends June 30 with holidays at Christmas, Easter, and in the summer. Classes are usually from 8:30 a.m. until 4:30 p.m. with a lunch break of approximately 90 minutes. In 1992-1993 there were 22,710 primary schools with approximately 2,959,564 students and 264,615 teachers.

Elementary education is divided into two cycles. Cycle one is two years, and cycle two is three years. Students pass automatically from cycle one to two. During cycle one, teachers play a dominant role in the classroom and use a multidisciplinary curriculum. At times various classes may be grouped together and team-taught. Classroom activities are the responsibility of the Teachers Assembly (Collegio dei Docenti ). During the second cycle, teaching is divided into subject areas and different teachers teach the various subjects according to their specialty. Teaching is organized into modules around three main areas: linguistic expression, scientific-logicalmathematical, and historic-geographic-social. Teachers coordinate activities to ensure coherence and uniformity. Textbooks are chosen by individual teachers. Primary school curriculum includes Italian language, foreign language (French, German, or other) depending on the region of the Italian border, mathematics, science, history, geography, social studies, art, music, physical education, and Catholic religion (optional).

Student assessment and progress are tracked throughout the year by teacher observations; homework; and written work, oral work, and presentations. Parents or guardians received non-numerical reports (scheda ) about three times per year that emphasize the student's overall development commitment to learn. Parents are allowed to meet with teachers for an explanation of the report. At the end of the fifth grade students must pass written and oral exit examinations (Esami di Licenza Elementare ), which will allow them to enter compulsory lower secondary or middle school (Scuola Media ).

Secondary Education

Secondary schools (Scuola Secundaria ) are divided into lower and upper secondary education. Lower secondary or middle school is compulsory, lasts three years, and is for students 11- to 14-years-old. In 1992-1993 there were 9,857 lower secondary school with approximately 2,059,044 students and 233,034 teachers. The goal of these schools is to prepare students for life and careers. Individual subjects are taught by teachers with specialty in the field; however, teachers use cooperative, interdisciplinary planning and curricular connections to ensure coherence and uniformity. The curriculum includes Italian, history, civics, geography, foreign language, mathematics, sciences (physics, chemistry, and natural sciences), technical education, art, music, physical education, and catholic religion (optional). Teachers use non-prescribed, commercial textbooks.

Student assessment no longer includes marks from 1 through 10 or remedial exams. Each teacher enters narrative comments on the learning progress and maturity level of the student. The personal report card (Sheda Personale ) is prepared by each teacher and presented to the class council (Consiglio di Classe ) where all teachers agree on a written final assessment with explanatory notes that is sent to parents. The class council decides on the student promotion to the following academic year. At the end of the third year, all students take an exam consisting of three written tests in the subject areas of Italian, mathematics, and a foreign language and a multidisciplinary oral test. Students who fail must repeat the academic year. Passing students earn an overall assessment of excellent, good, or satisfactory and receive a middle school certificate (Diploma di Licenza Media ). This enables them to enter upper secondary education.

Upper secondary education is available for students aged 14 to 19. Most upper secondary schools are public and require a fee that may be waived according to the family financial need and the student assessment at the end of the year. The school year is from September until the end of June. Programs vary from three to five years. The majority of Italian teenagers attend Liceo Classico and Liceo Scientifico to prepare for university studies. Others attend art schools (Liceo Artistico or Istituto d'arte ); music school (Conservatorio di Musica ); elementary teacher preparatory programs (Istituto Magistrale ) or nursery school preparatory programs (Scuola Magistrale ). Some students attend the Liceo Linguistico, a privately funded and operated upper secondary institution. Those students who do not wish to pursue a university education may enroll in technical or vocational schools (Istituti Tecnici or Istituti Professionali ) after middle school for three years or more of training and education in applied fields.

The classical type education includes the classic liceum and the scientific liceum. The classical liceum prepares students for the university and other types of higher education. Liceum studies take five years and consist of two cycles: the lower cycle of two years and the upper cycle of three years. Students attend school six days per week and lessons are one hour per subject. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, Greek language and literature, foreign language and literature, history, philosophy, natural sciences, chemistry, geography, mathematics, physics, history of art, and physical education. Catholic religion is optional. The scientific liceum prepares students for university education with emphasis in the sciences. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, foreign language and literature, history, philosophy, geography, natural sciences, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, physics, drawing, and physical education. Catholic religion is optional.

Teacher Training (Istituto Magistrale ) for primary school teaching provides access to further study at schools of education at the university level. This program requires four years of coursework and may include a fifth year leading to university studies in the field of education. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, Latin language and literature, foreign language and literature, philosophy, courses on teaching methods and educational psychology, history, civics, geography, natural sciences, chemistry, mathematics, physics, drawing, history of art, choral music, and physical education. Students may elect to study the Catholic religion or a musical instrument.

Nursery school teacher training (Scuola Magistrale ) is a three-year course of study. Curriculum includes Italian language and literature, education courses, history, geography, accounting, mathematics, natural sciences, hygiene and pediatrics, music and choral singing, home economics, theory and application of physical education, handicrafts, drawing, and teaching methods. Catholic religion is optional.

Assessment for all types of classical, upper secondary schooling is done by individual teachers according to each subject. At the end of the year the Class Council determines each student's final assessment. Students must earn marks between a six and a ten for each subject; those with lower marks must repeat exams in September prior to entering a new school year. At the end of upper secondary school, students must take an exam consisting of two written tests and an oral test. The oral portion of the exam is given by an examining board, which asks questions based on the written exams. Students are expected to demonstrate expressive and critical ability. Those passing the exam receive a certificate of completion (Maturita ). In 1992-1993 there were 753 classical liceums with 231,064 students and teachers; 1,038 scientific liceums with 472,950 students and teachers; 541 primary teacher training schools with 159,518 students and 57,370 faculty; and 165 nursery teacher training schools with 21,522 students and teachers.

Artistic liceum provides students with specialization in painting, sculpture, stage design, and architecture. Coursework lasts for four years with access to higher education at the Fine Arts Academy (Academia di Belle Arti ) or schools of architecture at the university. Following a fifth year, students may obtain a certificate of art (Diploma di Maturita Artistica). General curriculum includes Italian language and literature, history, history of art, mathematics, physics, natural sciences, chemistry, physical geography, and physical education. Art curriculum includes life drawing, still life, figure modeling, ornamental modeling, geometric drawing, perspective, elements of architecture, and anatomy for artists.

Art schools (Istituti d'Arte ) prepare students for traditional craftwork in industry, such as in ceramics, textiles, printing, glass, or gems. Courses last approximately three years and lead to the master of art diploma (Diploma di Maestro d'Arte Applicata ). Students who complete two additional years of coursework obtain the upper secondary certificate (Diploma di Maturita di Arte Applicata ). Curriculum for art schools includes general subjects (Italian language and literature, history, civics, history of art and applied arts, mathematics, natural sciences, chemistry, and geography) and art curriculum (geometric and architectural drawing, life drawing, and plastic arts). Catholic religion is optional.

Special education is provided for by law and is available for special needs students, including the handicapped. Special students attend regular classrooms; however there also self-contained classrooms for students who are not able to be included in regular classroom instruction. There are also institutes for the blind and the deaf. Teachers at these institutes receive special training so they can work with these students. Classes for the blind include physical therapy, telephone switchboard, and basket weaving.

The handicap law of 1992 provides for special education for nursery school, elementary, and middle school students. Some classes are also held in rehabilitation centers and hospitals for children unable to come to school. These classes are set up by the provincial directorates of education in coordination with health services, as well as public and private centers under contract to the Health Ministry and the Ministry of Labor. Teachers with specific training in psychology and associated pedagogy are hired for these centers. Teachers with a specialized credential in special education become support teachers (Insegnanti di Sostegno ) in local school groups (Circolo Didattici ) for nursery and primary schools and in individual secondary schools. Special education teachers often work alongside a regular teacher, providing support to the special needs students.

Students between the ages of 14 and 17 may enroll in three-year technical or vocational programs that have an optional additional two years of education and training. Technical Schools (Istituto Tecnico ) prepare students to work in jobs in agriculture, industry, business, tourism, surveying, foreign trade, laboratory technicians, and many other practical professional occupations. Vocational Schools (Istituto Profesionale ) prepare students for work in industry, agriculture, trade, hotel business, and other skilled work in the labor market.

Technical and vocational schools have similar curricula, which include general classes (Italian language and literature, history, civics, geography, foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural sciences, chemistry, drawing, and physical education) and coursework within the field of specialization. Catholic religion is optional. Assessment for these schools is similar to that of upper secondary schools. In 1992-1993 there were 2,962 technical schools with 1,273,682 students and 111,334 teachers and 1,702 vocational schools with 534,044 students and 51,852 teachers.

Higher Education

Italy has the two oldest universities in Europe. The School of Medicine in Salerno was founded in the ninth century, and the University of Bologna was founded in the eleventh century. A number of other universities were founded by the end of the sixteenth century. The University of Padua and the University of Modena were founded in 1200. The universities of Rome, Perugia, Pisa, Florence, Naples, and Siena were founded in 1300. The universities of Turin, Parma and Catania were founded in 1400, and Messina was founded in 1500.

Article 33 of the Italian constitution allows public and private entities to establish institutions of higher education: universities, academies, and non-university higher education, such as art institutes. Other higher education institutions include the Higher Institutes of Physical Education, higher institutions with special statutes (Oriental Institute of Naples, the Higher Naval Institute of Naples, the College of Education of Pisa), schools of postgraduate and specialist studies, and other university level institutions. These institutions function fairly autonomously and are overseen by the Ministry for University of Scientific and Technological Research, which ensures some uniformity of curricula, standards, and examinations.

In 2000, university education was provided by 76 universities: 51 national universities, three polytechnic institutes, 12 free universities, 5 university institutes, 2 universities for foreign students, and 3 high schools (upper secondary). More than 1.0 million students attend Italian universities that employ more than 65,000 faculty members. Levels of university coursework include first level programs leading to a university diploma (Diploma Universitario ), which has been eliminated under current reform law and Special professional Training Schools (Scuole Dirette a Fini Speciali ). Second level programs lead to a university degree (Diploma di Laurea ). Third level programs lead to a specialization degree (Diploma di Specializzazione ) and research doctorate (Dottorato di Ricerca). Admission to third level degrees requires a (Diploma di Laurea ).

Students who complete the liceum may go directly to the university. Admission to the university requires candidates to have an upper secondary school certificate (Maturita or Diploma di Istruzione Secundaria Superiore ) earned after five years of study. Entrance exams are required for certain university programs and count for 70 percent of the admission, while grades from the Maturita count for 30 percent. Students are given numbers and placed on waiting lists according to their grades. Those with higher marks will be admitted to the university. Some candidates retake exams to achieve the higher marks needed for entering the university. The most crowded university programs are medicine, veterinary school, international studies, and environmental sciences. Other programs are less competitive and do not limit admissions.

Candidates apply directly to the institution they wish to attend. University students may pay registration and other fees. Needy students may apply and qualify for grants and loans; they may also hold part-time jobs. The academic year, which may be divided into semesters, starts in early November and ends in mid-June with final yearly exams in July. University degrees (Diploma di Laurea ) can be earned in the following professional fields: science, medicine, engineering, agriculture, economics, political-social law, literature (humanities). For each area of specialty there are compulsory and elective courses.

The average time for completing university course-work is from four to six years. A 1990 reform allows student to earn a university degree in a specialized working field (diploma di specialista ) within two to three years of coursework. Higher non-university education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Instruction or Ministry of Education.

In November 1999, regulation 509 established criteria for a new university structure that allows universities to plan courses of study and provide teaching autonomy. In 2000, reforms were underway to integrate the Italian educational system within the structure of the European community. The plan calls for two university cycles of study to allow for student transfers and mobility among universities in Europe. Additional reforms focus on student requirements and credits (Credito Formativo Universitario or CFU ) and the three-year Laurea (L ) degree and five-year Laurea Specialistica (LS ) degree. To enroll in L courses, students must have a Diploma di Istruzione Secundaria Superiore; to enroll in LS courses, students must have a Diploma di Superamento dell'Esame di Stato.

The Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research has reorganized university studies into five main areas: medicine; science and technology; humanities; law, politics, social sciences, and economics; and engineering and architecture. The Diploma di Laurea is designed to prepare students a high level of professional competency in their chosen field. The Laurea Specialistica provides additional advanced understanding and skills in the specialized profession. Written and oral exams are administered before students are allowed to advance within the university.

The university president confers university degrees and diplomas, which also reflect the higher education requirements of the European community. Each diploma reflects the student's course of study and the specific curriculum in the field of professional specialization. Some universities, in conjunction with national, local, public and private entities, may offer one year finishing courses in certain fields of specialization.

Non-university education includes Academies of Fine-Arts (Academia di belle Arti ), Higher Institutes for Art Industry (Istituto Superiore per le Industrie Artistiche ), National Academy of Dramatic Arts (Academia di Arte Drammatica ), National Academy of Dance (Academia di Danza ), and Academy of Music (Conservatoria di Musica ).

Vocational education and training are also part of non-university education. Initial vocational training is intended to promote employment and to allow individuals to keep abreast of new scientific and technological developments in the labor force. Vocational training is offered to young people who completed compulsory education and wish to earn a vocational certificate. This training is usually provided throughout the year by the following regional authorities: Ente Nazionale Istruzione Professionale (ENAIP); Associazione Cattolica Lavoratori Italiani (ACLI); Centro Nazionale Opere Salesiane (CNOS); Istituto Addestramento Lavoratori-Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori (IAL-CISL); and Ente Nazionale Formazione Addestramento Professionale dell'Unione Italiana Lavoratori (ENFAP-UIL).

Initial vocational training covers agriculture, industry, crafts, and services and includes courses leading to a first certificate; integration courses for completing secondary education; post-certificate courses for those requiring specialized certificates; courses and post-certification activities; and level two courses for additional certificates of specialization. During vocational education, students are often required to train in the workplace.

Some individuals between the ages of 15 and 25 have apprenticeships (Apprendistati ). Apprenticeships are based on a contract in which employers teach the student apprentice the necessary technical expertise to become a skilled worker. Apprentices receive financial compensation as they take theoretical courses and apply this knowledge in the workplace. At the end of the apprenticeship contract, these working students must pass a qualification exam in the particular apprenticeship field. There are approximately 605,000 young people involved in apprenticeship contracts; 53 percent are in the crafts sector. Approximately 80 percent of these apprenticeship enterprises are in Northern Italy.

Employment training contracts (Contratti di Formazione-Lavoro ) are covered by a 1983 law which provides for private and public companies and their consortia to take on a certain number of individuals between the ages of 15 and 30 for a period of 2 years. Enterprises must submit specific training plans and make a commitment to train and teach these individuals and assist them in transition to the world of work. The Italian government offers financial incentives to the companies that participate in this program.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Administration of the Italian Educational system was at one time highly centralized. Since the end of the 1950s, there has been a trend toward decentralization, from the Ministries to the regional and provincial offices. Presidential decrees in 1972 and 1977 transferred more educational responsibility to the regions, provinces, and communes; however, finance, personnel, curriculum, and scientific research, and other specialized areas remained centralized. In 1989 the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research was created to guide, regulate, finance, and help with the administration of universities and research. Other responsibilities of this university ministry include coordination with the European community and international integration of the university system, admission requirements, monitoring and assessment. The Ministry for Public Instruction continues to be responsible for elementary, secondary, and tertiary, non-university education.

A 1997 law continued to delegate some educational responsibilities to regional and local governments, but major decisions still remain centralized. A 1999 presidential decree provided additional regional educational autonomy in terms of administration and management, school time and classes, and some curricular decisions. The 1999 decree also created an agency for vocational training and education that will work in conjunction with the Ministry of Public Instruction and the Ministry of Labor for effective coordination of vocational education and training. Law Decree 300 also called for the merger of the Ministry of Public Instruction with the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research; the merger should be completed by 2003.

National education authorities include the Ministry of Education based in Rome; central offices; regional schools superintendents (Sovrintendenza Scolastica Regionale ); and the Provincial Director of Education (Provveditorato agli Studi ). Within the Ministry of Public Instruction, the minister is assisted by one or more under-secretaries. The organizational units within the Ministry of Public Instruction deal with different levels and types of schools, teacher education and training, cultural exchanges, personnel administration. The Ministry issues general guidelines, legislation and directives for schools and schooling. There is a special service for preschool education, and three inspectors are responsible for physical education, art education, and employee pensions.

The minister may call upon certain individuals for advice, tasks, and budget. These persons include the Secretariat, members of the minister's cabinet and offices working with the Minister of Public Instruction; regional and provincial undersecretaries of state appointed directly by the Minister; and ministerial advisers. Directors general, inspectors, and departments may also be called for expert advice.

The Higher Council for Education (Consiglio Superiore della Pubblica Istruzione ) has replaced the National Education Council. This council assists the Minister of Public Instruction with planning and supervision of education policy. The central general administration of nursery schools (Servicio per la Scuola Materna ) assists the Minister in policy making and the implementation of educational activities (Orientamenti dell'Acttivita Educativa ). The central general administration of elementary and secondary education (Directorates ) deal with primary and lower and upper secondary schooling. These directors submit regulations to the Minister of Public Instruction regarding curricular implementation, teacher recruitment, non-teaching staff, student assessment, funding, and other school issues.

Central general administration of higher education under the Ministero dell'Universita e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica is responsible for the implementation and evaluation of the university strategic plan; ensures the autonomy of individual universities; enhances university research; supervises and monitors university research plans; allocates funds according to specific, designated criteria; coordinates educational activities and research projects at the national and international level, especially within the countries in the European community; works in conjunction with the Ministero della Istruzione Pubblica in coordinating education at various levels in terms of inservice training of school personnel; fosters research in the field of education; and promotes cultural exchanges among schools and universities. The Ministry of University and Scientific and Technical Research is assisted by three departments: the Department of University and Student Autonomy (Dipartimento per l'Autonomia Universitaria e gli Studenti ), the Department for the Development and Promotion of Research (Dipartimento per lo Sviluppo e il Potenziamento del'Attivita di Ricerca ), and the Department for Economic Affairs (Dipartimento per agli Affari Economici ).

Additional councils assist the Ministry in matters of university education and administration. The Consiglio Universitario Nazionale (CUN) oversees university planning, the appointment of professors and researchers, and teaching regulations. The council is composed by 15 professors, 3 of whom representing 3 scientific disciplines; 8 student representatives; 4 technical and administrative staff representatives; and 3 members of the Conferenza Permanente dei Rettori della Universita Italiana (CRUI). These representatives are all elected members who remain in office for four years. CRUI is involved in the development of objectives for the university, the allocation of financial resources, and in the administration of didactic and scientific regulations regarding research.

The Commissione di Esperti per il Coordinamento tra l'Istruzione Universitaria e gli Gradi di Istruzione (Commission of Experts for the Coordination of University Instruction) is composed of three members appointed by the Consiglio Nazionale della Pubblica Istruzione, three members appointed by the CUN, two members appointed by the Consiglio Nazionale dell'Economia e del Lavoro (CNEL) representing employers and employees, one representative from the Regional Institute for Research and Refresher Courses (IRRSAE) which coordinates in-service teacher training, three experts nominated by the Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, and three experts nominated by the Ministero dell' Universita e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica. This commission concerns itself with students following university education and preparation for teaching.

Two new councils will be formed after 2000: the Consulta Nazionale per il Diritto agli Studi Universitari (National Council for the Rights of University Students) and Consiglio Nazionale degli Studenti Universitari (National Council of University Students). The National Council for the Rights of University Students will be composed of five university representatives, five regional representatives, and five students. The National Council of University Students will be comprised of 28 student members, elected by their peers, who are enrolled in degree or diploma programs. This council will be concerned with general criteria and teaching guidelines.

In Italy, local school administration includes provinces and communes. Education power at the provincial level includes the Provveditore agli studi and the Assessore Provinciale alla Pubblica Istruzione. These individuals are responsible for state and local administration of schools. The Provveditore is in charge of the promotion, coordination, supervision, and monitoring of provincial schools, except for the Fine Arts Institutes. He interprets the central laws and regulations for primary and secondary education in regional schools. The Provincial Director of Education establishes relationships among provincial andlocal school authorities. The Provveditore is also responsible for inservice education for teachers, special education, and health education. The Provincial Scholastic Council (Consiglio Scolastico Provinciale ) serves as a consulting body to the Provveditore. The Assessore alla Pubblica Istruzione is responsible for upper secondary education in terms of establishing and annexing schools and other aspects of physical facilities, including the integration of handicapped students, school networking, and school safety.

Commune offices and authorities, often representing small residential communities, are distributed throughout Italy and are concerned with the performance of functions and services needed in the daily operation of schools and student attendance. Additional responsibilities include subsidized student transportation, cafeterias, textbooks, and financial assistance for needy families. Communes have similar responsibilities as provincial bodies.

Specific administration and management of schools have become increasingly decentralized and grant schools autonomy in teaching, administration, research, and development. Schools are viewed as expressions of functional autonomy aimed at determining and providing educational opportunity. Schools are seen as institutions that assist with the cognitive, sociocultural, and moral development of citizens in a pluralistic society. Each school prepares a Piano dell'Oferta Formativa (POF), a plan that includes the philosophy, missions, and goals consistent with the general educational objectives and national standards. Schools are expected to reflect the cultural, social and economical realities of each community and provide equal opportunity in education for all citizens. The POF includes different teaching strategies that consider teaching and learning styles, especially the needs of culturally diverse students.

The Collegio del Docenti (Teacher Council) makes decisions regarding teaching and learning on the basis of general objectives defined by the Consiglio di Circolo (Cycle Council) or Consiglio di Istituto (Institutional or School Council). Parents and students have input in the decision-making process. School goals, regulations and decisions are distributed to students and parents during enrollment at the start of each academic year. Statutory rule of law concerning school autonomy makes it clear that schools must take into account cultural pluralism; provide equal opportunity for students; foster academic freedom in teaching and learning; as well as plan and implement educational and training interventions, which assist in the development of all learners. School decentralized decision-making includes teaching autonomy, organizational autonomy, and research autonomy. Teaching autonomy means that schools must carry out a plan that includes national objectives leading to an educational environment conducive to learning for all students.

Class schedules and lessons are flexible and arranged into modules, according to subject areas, which best meet student needs. Students are grouped for enhanced learning and teaching opportunity. In terms of organizational autonomy, schools are allowed to decide how to best allocate teaching resources and adapt teaching methodologies and curriculum according to student needs, as long as the schools follow their POF. Autonomy of research, experimentation, and development provides for curricular planning and assessment; training and professional development of school personnel; innovation of curricula and pedagogy; theoretical and experiential teaching and learning; and interdisciplinary curricular integration, including vocational education and training.

School autonomy also allows individual schools to increase course offerings and educational activities that take into account the social and cultural needs of the community. Schools are encouraged to build networks with other schools, universities, and private corporations and associations. These community network relationships encourage curriculum innovation, a variety of methods and strategies, collaborative research opportunities, cooperation in educational resources, and teacher exchanges.

Schools are given administrative and financial autonomy in staff recruitment, hiring, and teaching assignments. The Ministry of Education establishes guidelines for school autonomy to ensure some uniformity within the Italian educational system. This guiding framework includes specific educational objectives, minimum curriculum standards, compulsory curricular timetables, general criteria for student assessment, and general organization of adult education. Universities function under the guidelines of the Ministry of the University and Scientific and Technological Research, but they also have some provincial and regional autonomy in terms of staffing, curriculum, and research.

The Ministry of Public Instruction allocates funds directly to technical and vocational schools to use for materials and laboratories and other facilities needed for experiential education. Regions have specific powers and needs regarding school buildings, vocational education, school transportation, school meals, and providing textbooks free of charge. Provinces and communes are usually given freedom to use resources and finances to meet the needs of individual communities, while still maintain standards and requirements of the Ministry of Public Instruction. Provincial authorities cover the building cost of primary and lower secondary schools, as well as technical and scientific upper secondary schools. The communes cover the cost of upper secondary classical schools.

The Ministry of Universities and Scientific and Technological Research disperses financial resources among state and private universities that meet state level requirements. Private universities also received funding from private organizations, associations, or foundations. State universities are allowed to accept private funding contributions for resources and research. Additional income for universities comes from student tuition.

Evaluation of educational institutions is a concern. In 1999 the government established the National Institute for the Evaluation of the Educational System, which is responsible for the administration of institutional evaluation, documentation, and educational research. This institute monitors institutional evaluation and provides technical guidance and support. Inspectors from the Ministry of Education pay regular visits to schools to ensure educational quality and equity and implementation of ministerial directives. Inspectors' responsibilities include giving educational assistance in terms of planning, organization, and implementation of programs; technical assistance and advice for experimental and research activities; and defining and implementing in-service training for faculty and staff.

Article 33 of the Italian constitution establishes educational policy, which states that the government must establish a state school system for all children, providing opportunities commensurate with their aspirations, regardless of economic status and social situation, such as ethnic or linguistic background. Private bodies and individuals are entitled to establish schools and colleges of education. These schools may get state funding if they follow rules and guidelines, including health regulations, similar to those of public schools and ensure equal opportunity to students.

Nationally recognized private schools are also authorized to provide certificates of completion. Provincial Directors of Education supervise private schools at the preschool level. Private elementary schools include officially recognized schools (Scuole Parificate ) also supervised by the Provincial Director of Education (Provveditore agli Studi ); and authorized private schools run by persons with a Primary Teaching Training Certificate, or a classical or technical diploma (Magistrale from the Scuola Magistrale ). Teachers at these private schools may be asked to articulate a faith and morality statement.

Private education at the secondary level includes legally recognized schools (Scuole Legalment Risonosciute ) and state authorized schools (Scuole Pareggiate ). These schools have the same validity as state schools and can award a middle school certificate (Diploma di Licenza Media ). In recognized schools, curriculum, student assessment, and teacher qualifications are similar to public schools. Private schools may receive public funding in terms of government grants. Private education at a higher level include universities and other higher education institutions, as well as non-university higher level education for high levels of specialization, such as art institutes. If these institutes follow state guidelines, they may award certificates. The Ministry of Education's art inspector supervises the private art institutes.

Nonformal Education

At one time the primary goal of nonformal adult education was to eliminate illiteracy. Since the level and quality of literacy have risen, adult education has been focusing on preparing adults to enter the workforce and preparing individuals to continue their own educational attainment. Many of the students enrolled in adult education include housewives, unemployed persons, and immigrants seeking newer opportunities for employment and further education.

Scuole Populari were first established in 1947 to help eliminate illiteracy. These schools abolished in 1982. However, there are literacy courses for elementary and secondary school certificates of achievement for those who did not follow all prior educational steps. Management of adult schools is the function of territorial centers, which decide on the specific needs of communities. Adult education is planned and coordinated at the district level. Adult education centers usually function within an established school. The school principal is the coordinator for the adult education center.

Activities in adult centers include counseling and guidance for applicants; literacy education at various levels, including preparation for higher education; language (Italian) education and special language training for immigrants and others; vocational education and training; and preparation for certificates of achievement in compulsory elementary education and secondary school certificate. Many adults return to school for retraining and changing career paths. Most classes are offered in the evening to meet the needs of the working student population. Certification includes Diploma di Licenza Elementare, Diploma di Licenza Medi, and statement of vocational training and similar certificates of achievement for secondary education.

Italy is part of EDUVINET, Education via networks, a partner team of European Community member countries for Internet-supported teaching and learning and distance education in and among schools in Europe. Objectives of EDUVINET include training teachers, administrators, and students in using internet resources effectively; preparing young people and adults for the information age in interdependent democracies; extending educational European content available on the internet; and using educational resources more efficiently throughout European schools.

The EDUVINET Web site includes discussion forums, like EDUTALK; teaching, methodology, and curriculum; full text teaching resources; exemplary teaching content; teacher training opportunities; links to schools, teaching subjects, curriculum and pedagogy, and European information; opportunities for publishing with EDUVINET; and searching engines. EDUVINET is supported financially by the SOCRATES Open and Distance Learning Program. EDUVINET can also be a support network for distance education available through the Open University, which started in the England and has expanded through many European countries. Adult students find the Open University Distance Education opportunity a flexible means of continuing educational goals.

Teaching Profession

Teachers have always been considered government employees; however, they have their own collective bargaining unit at school level. Educational reforms have lead to increased decentralization. Individual schools are becoming the groups primarily responsible for the administration and management of the teaching staff. The Ministry of Public Instruction continues to be responsible for orientation, coordination, and verification of teaching status.

Until 1997-1998 primary school teachers were trained at upper secondary schools (Istitutos Magistrales ) for four years where the curriculum included academic courses on teacher training that included theory, methods, and teaching practice. Since 1998 nursery school and elementary teacher education are required to complete a four-year university degree (Laurea ).

Secondary school teachers always had been required to attend and earn a university degree in a specialized field. They may obtain the designation of Abilitazione from two-year specialization schools (Scuole di Specializzazione ). Those wishing to take the teaching exam (cattedre ) must have this designation. Teachers must pass another exam (concorso ) to obtain professional teaching status. Teachers also receive training on the integration of special needs students, such handicapped students; some teachers have a specialization in areas of special education. Teachers in recognized private schools must meet the same qualifications as public school teachers.

School principals or head teachers (Preside, Direttore Didattico, or Dirigente Scolastici ) are responsible for the overall management of the school, including instructional, financial, and personnel issues and represent the school within the community. They report directly to the Provincial Director of Education. The principals or head teachers coordinate all school activities and are responsible for meeting legislative provisions. They must guarantee equal opportunity and equity of resources to all students, taking into account the sociocultural needs of the community. These school leaders implement School Council decisions; organize the school internally, promoting and coordinating activities for faculty and staff; and develop class schedules, teacher assignments, and student disciplinary action. Other teachers or administrative directors may assist the principal or head teacher.

The recruitment of new Dirigente Scolastici is done through a course-competition announced by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Teachers with a university degree (Laurea ) who have been teaching for at least seven years can be admitted to this competition. Teachers who complete the general training course-competition satisfactorily and who meet placement qualifications can be placed in primary and middle schools. Teachers who complete specific secondary training can be placed as head teachers in upper secondary schools.

The School Council (Consiglio di Istituto ) is responsible for budgetary methods and the organization and planning of non-educational extra curricular activities. The council decides on the purchase of school equipment, teaching materials, and other resources; on the use of school facilities for curricular and extra curricular activities, including sports; on the remedial and support courses to be offered, and on the cooperative efforts with other schools and community groups. The council includes teachers, parents, and students. The chair of the council is an elected parent representative, and the principal serves an ex-officio member.

Teaching and educational activities are the responsibility of the principal, the Teachers' Assembly (Collegio dei Docenti ), the Interclass Council (Consiglio d'Interclasse ) for primary schools and Class Council (Consiglio de Classe ) for secondary schools. The Teachers' Assembly is composed of all the permanent and temporary teachers of each primary school group or individual primary or secondary school and is chaired by the school principal. The Teachers' Assembly is responsible for teaching and educational plans for each school year. The group must follow national legislation and guidelines and be cognizant of community needs and concerns. It encourages academic freedom and interdisciplinary teaching and learning. The Teachers Assembly is also responsible for evaluating teacher performance, selecting textbooks and other resources in consultation with teachers and parents, and for providing inservice for teachers and staff.

Rectors are univerisities' legal representatives. The faculty members at each university select someone among them to serve as rector or president. The rector carries out the decisions of the academic senate (Senato Academico ), the university decision-making body regarding academics and other educational issues. The president also works with the Consiglio di Administrazione, the board responsible for administrative and financial management. Various faculties within departments carry out instructional and research activities in fields of specialization. University teaching requires a doctorate in a field of specialization. The Faculty Committee, comprised of deans, professors and researchers, coordinates and carries out the academic responsibilities of the university related to curriculum, scholarship, and student advising. The committee makes decisions about teaching and research. Students may be a part of this committee. Inspectors visit schools to ensure that educational objectives are being met.

The federal government finances public education by providing salaries for teachers and staff and purchasing textbooks and other instructional materials and resources. Most funding is sent directly to regional and provincial offices for schools to use as they deem appropriate following guidelines from the Ministry of Public Instruction. The School Council is responsible for allocating funding for school maintenance, facilities, equipment, library expenditures, and academic resources. Preliminary budgets are prepared by an Executive Board elected by the School Council and chaired by the school principal. The school secretary, an ex-officio member of the board, is responsible for recording accounting and expenses.

University rectors are responsible for posting recruitment needs, procedures, and competitive exams for the posts of full, associate, and research professor. University faculty includes full professors and associate professors. Full professors are professors with tenure of first level (Professori di Prima Fascia or Ordinari ), and associate professors have tenure of second level (Professori di Seconda Fascia ). Professorial levels are assured academic freedom in teaching and research. Research professors (Professori di Ricerca ) contribute to the development of research and integrate and apply it to their teaching.

Contract professors are hired according to Ministry for Universities for Scientific and Technical Research (MURST) regulations for one- to six-year contracts to teach and assist in scholarship activities with professors and university students within specific fields of specialization. Budget considerations may limit these contracts. Native language collaborators and linguistic experts who have earned a Laurea may be hired to work on specific research projects with faculty and students for a specific time period. Lecturers from other countries are also hired for their areas of expertise and work for a limited contract period.

Summary

The Italian school system is divided into three tiers: primary, secondary, and higher education. School reform was introduced in the early 1960s and continues. The primary or elementary school is compulsory and free; elementary education starts at 6 years of age and lasts until a student is 11 years old. Students are required to pass an aptitude exam at the end of elementary school before entering secondary school.

Compulsory education has been extended to lower secondary education or middle school and, in 1999, to the first year of upper secondary school. At the end of middle school, students take another aptitude test before entering upper secondary school. At the end of upper secondary education, students must pass a final exam (Esame di Stato ) that allows them to earn a certificate (Diploma di Maturita ) to enter the world of work or gain access to universities and non-university higher education schools. Upper secondary schools, sometimes also referred to as higher education, include the classic, linguistic, and scientific schools (liceos ); education schools for nursery and elementary teachers; and technical, vocational, and professional schools.

There are private schools for all levels of education. Funding for private schools is primarily from private organizations; however, private schools may receive state funds if they follow the same guidelines as state public schools in terms of curriculum, personnel, and management.

Adult education exists for those who wish to acquire job skills, improve literacy levels, and continue their education. The Italian educational system recognizes the importance of cultural and linguistic pluralism and in schools. Accommodations are made for students with special needs. Italy, as a member of the European Community, is engaged in the European dimension of education and participate in a network of international initiatives.

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—Maria A. Pacino