Temptation

Temptation is a Christian theological term meaning "enticement to sin." In classical theology, a person may be tempted by the world, the flesh, or the Devil (also known as the "Tempter") to commit acts contrary to Christian morality.

Throughout American history, changing conceptions of sin and salvation have redefined specific temptations. One might be tempted to excessive wealth or power, spiritual ennui, sensual pleasure, doctrinal deviation, or a violation of ethical mores. In a general sense, these things always provide occasion to sin. However, the specifics vary depending upon the religious tradition and the particular era. Such variations have often been the source of religious tension in the United States.

In nineteenth-century America, for example, most Protestants believed alcohol use to be inherently sinful. A Christian could be tempted by "demon rum" to a life of drunkenness and debauchery. Alcohol was seen as the source of poverty and moral corruption leading to the destruction of the Christian family and, ultimately, the nation. Liquor possessed such a powerful inducement to sin that Protestants sought to limit its use through both voluntary and legislative means. Roman Catholics, however, did not share Protestant views on alcohol, believing instead that spirits could be celebratory and pleasurable. Most Catholics refused to participate in Protestant prohibition campaigns. Protestants understood this to prove the moral and political deficiencies of Roman Catholicism. "Rum" thus served as a point of conflict between the Protestant majority and the growing Catholic minority in both theology and politics.

Even within traditions, however, temptation is not static. In the early twentieth century, evangelical Protestants identified smoking, drinking, dancing, makeup, movies, and secular music as sinful. By the 1980s, this list had been substantially modified. Some things might or might not be sinful under certain circumstances. "G" and "PG" films were generally acceptable; "R" and "NC-17" films were generally not. Many evangelical colleges dropped dress rules and prohibitions against dancing on campus. Drinking and smoking became health concerns rather than sins. For one generation of evangelicals, these moral taboos were absolutes. For their grandchildren, temptation depended upon a person's intentions. Older evangelicals often depict this as a loss of fervor or decline of faith on the part of the younger generation. Younger evangelicals think previous generations narrow-minded or irrelevant. Such patterns of generational tension repeat in other traditions.

No matter how much variation, however, temptation usually connotes sexuality. In contemporary America, the world (power, money, prestige) and the devil (as a personal being) have lost some currency as sources of temptation. Thus Microsoft billionaire Bill Gates is a cultural hero for some, and even Christians question whether Satan exists. But the flesh, from pre-martial intercourse to Internet pornography, is still a powerful draw to sin. Both religious and secular scandals are energized by sexual temptation. In the 1980s, televangelists Jimmy Swaggart and Jim Bakker were brought down by sexual misadventures. In 1999, Harvard Divinity School Dean Frank Thielmann was demoted when Internet pornography was found on his computer. Even President Bill Clinton admitted to the American public that he had given in to temptation in his affair with a White House intern.

See alsoSexuality; Televangelism; Temperance.

Bibliography

Hunter, James Davidson. Evangelicalism: TheComingGeneration. 1987.

Menninger, Karl. Whatever Became of Sin? 1973.

Niebuhr, Reinhold. Moral Man and ImmoralSociety. 1932.

Shur, Edwin M. Our Criminal Society. 1969.

"Temptation." In HarperCollins Encyclopedia ofCatholicism, edited by Richard P. McBrien. 1995.

Diana Hochstedt Butler Bass