THAILAND

Compiled from the October 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Kingdom of Thailand

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-THAI RELATIONS
TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 513,120 sq. km. (198,270 sq. mi.); about the size of Texas.

Cities: (2001) Capital—Bangkok (10 million est.), Nakhon Ratchasima (437,386), Chiang Mai (247,672).

Terrain: Densely populated central plain; northeastern plateau; mountain range in the west; southern isthmus joins the land mass with Malaysia.

Climate: Tropical monsoon.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Thai(s).

Population: (2002) 63 million.

Annual growth rate: 1.1%.

Ethnic groups: Thai 89%, other 11%.

Religions: Buddhist 94.6%, Muslim 4.6%, Christian, Hindu, Brahmin, other.

Languages: Thai (official language); English is the second language of the elite; regional dialects.

Education: Years compulsory—9. Literacy—95% male, 91% female.

Health: (2002) Infant mortality rate—6.5/1,000. Life expectancy—67.93 years male, 74.90 years female.

Government

Type: Constitutional monarchy.

Constitution: New constitution promulgated October 11, 1997.

Independence: Never colonized; traditional founding date 1238.

Branches: Executive—king (chief of state), prime minister (head of government). Legislative—National Assembly (bicameral). Judicial — composed of the Constitutional Court, the Courts of Justice, and the Administrative Courts.

Administrative subdivisions: 76 provinces, including Bangkok municipality, subdivided into 795 districts, 81 subdistricts, 7,255 tambon administration, 69,866 villages.

Political parties: Multi-party system; Communist Party is prohibited. Suffrage: Universal and compulsory at 18 years of age.

Economy

GDP: (2002)$126 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2002) 5.3%; (2003, projected) 6.0%.

Per capita income: (2002) $2,004.

Natural resources: Tin, rubber, natural gas, tungsten, tantalum, timber, lead, fish, gypsum, lignite, fluorite.

Agriculture: (9% of GDP) Products—rice, tapioca, rubber, corn, sugarcane, coconuts, soybeans.

Industry: Types—tourism, textiles, garments, agricultural processing, cement, integrated circuits, jewelry, electronics, auto assembly.

Trade: (2002) Exports—$67 billion: textiles and footwear, fishery products, computers and parts, electronics, electrical appliances, jewelry, rice, tapioca products, integrated circuits, rubber, automobiles. Major markets—U.S., ASEAN, Japan, EU, Singapore, Hong Kong, China. Imports—$63 billion: machinery and parts, petroleum, iron and steel, chemicals, vehicles and parts, jewelry, fish preparations, electrical appliances, fertilizers and pesticides. Major suppliers—Japan, ASEAN, EU, U.S., Middle East, China, Taiwan, South Korea.

PEOPLE

Thailand's population is relatively homogeneous. More than 85% speak a dialect of Thai and share a common culture. This core population includes the central Thai (33.7% of the population, including Bangkok), Northeastern Thai (34.2%), northern Thai (18.8%), and southern Thai (13.3%).

The language of the central Thai population is the language taught in schools and used in government. Several other small Thai-speaking groups include the Shan, Lue, and Phutai.

Up to 12% of Thai are of significant Chinese heritage, but the Sino-Thai community is the best integrated in Southeast Asia. Malay-speaking Muslims of the south comprise another significant minority group (2.3%). Other groups include the Khmer; the Mon, who are substantially assimilated with the Thai; and the Vietnamese. Smaller mountain-dwelling tribes, such as the Hmong and Mein, as well as the Karen, number about 788,024.

The population is mostly rural, concentrated in the rice-growing areas of the central, northeastern, and northern regions. However, as Thailand continues to industrialize, its urban population—31.1% of total population, principally in the Bangkok area—is growing.

Thailand's highly successful government-sponsored family planning program has resulted in a dramatic decline in population growth from 3.1% in 1960 to around 1% today. Life expectancy also has risen, a positive reflection of Thailand's efforts at public health education. However, the AIDS epidemic has had a major impact on the Thai population. Today, over 700,000 Thais live with HIV or AIDS—approximately two percent of adult men and 1.5 percent of adult women. Each year until at least 2006, 30-50,000 Thais will die from AIDS-related causes. Ninety percent of them will be aged 20-24, the most productive sector of the workforce. The situation could have been worse; an aggressive public education campaign in the early 1990s reduced the number of new HIV infections from 150,000 to 25,000 annually.

The constitution mandates 12 years of free education, however, this is not provided universally. Education accounts for 19% of total government expenditures.

Theravada Buddhism is the official religion of Thailand and is the religion of about 95% of its people. The government permits religious diversity, and other major religions are represented. Spirit worship and animism are widely practiced.

HISTORY

Southeast Asia has been inhabited for more than half a million years. Recent archaeological studies suggest that by 4000 BC, communities in what is now Thailand had emerged as centers of early bronze metallurgy. This development, along with the cultivation of wet rice, provided the impetus for social and political organization. Research suggests that these innovations may actually have been transmitted from there to the rest of Asia, including to China.

The Thai are related linguistically to Tai groups originating in southern China. Migrations from southern China to Southeast Asia may have occurred in the 6th and 7th centuries. Malay, Mon, and Khmer civilizations flourished in the region prior to the arrival of the ethnic Tai.

Thais date the founding of their nation to the 13th century. According to tradition, in 1238, Thai chieftains overthrew their Khmer overlords at Sukhothai and established a Thai kingdom. After its decline, a new Thai kingdom emerged in 1350 on the Chao Praya River. At the same time, there was an equally important Tai kingdom of Lanna, centered in Chiang Mai, which rivaled Sukothai and Ayutthaya for centuries, and which defines northern Thai identity to this day.

The first ruler of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya, King Rama Thibodi, made two important contributions to Thai history: the establishment and promotion of Theravada Buddhism as the official religion—to differentiate his kingdom from the neighboring Hindu kingdom of Angkor—and the compilation of the Dharmashastra, a legal code based on Hindu sources and traditional Thai custom. The Dharmashastra remained a tool of Thai law until late in the 19th century. Beginning with the Portuguese in the 16th century, Ayutthaya had some contact with the West, but until the 1800s, its relations with neighboring kingdoms and principalities, as well as with China, were of primary importance.

After more than 400 years of power, in 1767, the Kingdom of Ayutthaya was brought down by invading Burmese armies and its capital burned. After a single-reign capital established at Thonburi by Taksin, a new capital city was founded in 1782, across the Chao Phraya at the site of present-day Bangkok, by the founder of the Chakri dynasty. The first Chakri king was crowned Rama I. Rama's heirs became increasingly concerned with the threat of European colonialism after British victories in neighboring Burma in 1826.

The first Thai recognition of Western power in the region was the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United Kingdom in 1826. In 1833, the United States began diplomatic exchanges with Siam, as Thailand was called until 1938. However, it was during the later reigns of Rama IV (or King Mongkut, 1851-68), and his son Rama V (King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910), that Thailand established firm rapprochement with Western powers. The Thais believe that the diplomatic skills of these monarchs, combined with the modernizing reforms of the Thai Government, made Siam the only country in South and Southeast Asia to avoid European colonization.

In 1932, a bloodless coup transformed the Government of Thailand from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. King Prajadhipok (Rama VII) initially accepted this change but later surrendered the kingship to his 10-year-old nephew. Upon his abdication, King Prajadhipok said that the obligation of a ruler was to reign for the good of the whole people, not for a select few. Although nominally a constitutional monarchy, Thailand was ruled by a series of military governments interspersed with brief periods of democracy from that time until the 1992 elections. Since the 1992 elections, Thailand has been a functioning democracy with constitutional changes of government.

As with the rest of Southeast Asia, Thailand was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. Since Japan's defeat in 1945, Thailand has had very close relations with the United States. Threatened by communist revolutions in neighboring countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, Thailand actively sought to contain communist expansion in the region. Recently, Thailand also has been an active member in multilateral organizations like the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

The king has little direct power under the constitution but is a symbol of national identity and unity. King Bhumibol —who has been on the throne since 1946—commands enormous popular respect and moral authority, which he has used on occasion to resolve political crises that have threatened national stability.

Thailand's legal system blends principles of traditional Thai and Western laws. The Constitutional Court is the highest court of appeals, though its jurisdiction is limited to clearly defined constitutional issues. Its members are nominated by the Senate and appointed by the King. The Courts of Justice have jurisdiction over criminal and civil cases and are organized in three tiers: Courts of First Instance, the Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court of Justice. Administrative courts have jurisdiction over suits between private parties and the government, and cases in which one government entity is suing another. In Thailand's southern border provinces, where Muslims constitute the majority of the population, Provincial Islamic Committees have limited jurisdiction over probate, family, marriage, and divorce cases.

The National Assembly consists of two chambers—the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is a non-partisan body with limited legislative powers, composed of 200 directly elected members from constituent districts, with every province having at least one Senator. The House of Representatives has 500 members, 400 of whom are directly elected from constituent districts, and the remainder drawn proportionally from party lists.

Thailand's 76 provinces include the metropol is of greater Bangkok. Bangkok's governor is popularly elected, but those of the remaining provinces are career civil servants appointed by the Ministry of Interior. Following the 1932 revolution which imposed constitutional limits on the monarchy, Thai politics were dominated for a half century by a military and bureaucratic elite. Changes of government were effected primarily by means of along series of mostly bloodless coups.

Beginning with a brief experiment in democracy during the mid-1970s, civilian democratic political institutions slowly gained greater authority, culminating in 1988 when Chatichai Choonavan—leader of the Thai Nation Party—assumed office as the country's first democratically elected prime minister in more than a decade. Three years later, yet another bloodless coup ended his term.

Shortly afterward, the military appointed Anand Panyarachun, a businessman and former diplomat, to head a largely civilian interim government and promised to hold elections in the near future. However, following inconclusive elections, former army commander Suchinda Kraprayoon was appointed prime minister. Thais reacted to the appointment by demanding an end to military influence in government. Demonstrations were violently suppressed by the military; in May 1992, soldiers killed at least 50 protesters.

Domestic and international reaction to the violence forced Suchinda to resign, and the nation once again turned to Anand Panyarachun, who was named interim prime minister until new elections in September 1992. In those elections, the political parties that had opposed the military in May 1992 won by a narrow majority, and Chuan Leekpai, a leader of the Democratic Party, became Prime Minister. Chuan dissolved Parliament in May 1995, and the Thai Nation Party won the largest number of parliamentary seats in subsequent elections. Party leader Banharn Silpa-archa became Prime Minister but held the office only little more than a year. Following elections held in November 1996, Chavalit Young-chaiyudh formed a coalition government and became Prime Minister. The onset of the Asian financial crisis caused a loss of confidence in the Chavalit government and forced him to hand over power to Chuan Leekpai in November 1997. Chuan formed a coalition government based on the themes of prudent economic management and institution of political reforms mandated by Thailand's 1997 constitution.

In the January 2001 elections, telecommunications multimillionaire Thaksin Shinawatra and his Thai Rak Thai (TRT) party won an overwhelming victory on a populist platform of economic growth and development. TRT enjoys an absolute majority in the lower house of the Parliament, controlling 365 of 500 seats. In a cabinet reshuffle of October 2002, the Thaksin administration further put its stamp on the government. A package of bureaucratic reform legislation created six new ministries in an effort to streamline the bureaucratic process and increase efficiency and accountability.

Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 2/3/04

Thai officials are addressed by the first element in their names.

King: PHUMIPHON Adunyadet,

Prime Minister: THAKSIN Chinnawat,

Dep. Prime Min.: CHAWALIT Yongchaiyut, Gen. (Ret.)

Dep. Prime Min.: PHOKIN Phalakun,

Dep. Prime Min.: SUWIT Khunkitti,

Dep. Prime Min.: CHATURON Chaisaeng,

Dep. Prime Min.: VISHANU Krua-ngam,

Dep. Prime Min.: PURACHAI Piamsombun,

Dep. Prime Min.: SOMKHIT Chatusiphithak,

Min. of Agriculture & Cooperatives: SOMSAK Thepsuthin,

Min. of Commerce: WATANA Muangsook,

Min. of Culture: ANURAK Churimat,

Min. of Defense: THAMMARAK Isarangkun na Ayutthaya, Gen. (Ret.)

Min. of Education: ADISAI Photharamik,

Min. of Energy: PROMMIN Lertsuridet,

Min. of Finance: SUCHAT Chaowisit,

Min. of Foreign Affairs: SURAKIAT Sathianthai,

Min. of Industry: PHINIT Charusombat,

Min. of Information Technology & Communications: SURAPHONG Supwongli,

Min. of Interior: WANMUHAMATNO Matha,

Min. of Justice: PONGTHEP Thepkachana,

Min. of Labor: URAIWAN Thienthong,

Min. of Natural Resources & Environment: PRAPAT Panyachatraksa,

Min. of Public Health: SUDARAT Keyuraphan,

Min. of Science & Technology: CHETTA Tharancharo, Gen.

Min. of Social Dev. & Human Security: SORA-AT Klinprathum,

Min. of Tourism & Sports: SONTHAYA Khunplum,

Min. of Transport: SURIYA Chungrungruangkit,

Governor, Central Bank: PRIDIYATHON Thewakun,

Ambassador to the US: SAKTHIP Krairiksh,

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: LAKSANACHANTHON Laohaphan,

Thailand maintains an embassy in the United States at 1024 Wisconsin Ave. NW, Washington DC 20007 (tel. 202-944-3600). Consulates are located in New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

ECONOMY

The Thai economy is export-dependent, with exports accounting for 60% of GDP. Thailand's recovery from the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis relied largely on external demand from the United States and other foreign markets. The Thaksin government took office in February 2001 with the intention of stimulating domestic demand and reducing Thailand's reliance on foreign trade and investment. Since then, the Thaksin administration has refined its economic message, embracing a "dual track" economic policy that combines domestic stimulus with Thailand's traditional promotion of open markets and foreign investment. Weak export demand held 2001 GDP growth to 1.9%. In 2002, however, domestic stimulus and export revival fueled a better performance, with real GDP growth at 5.3%.

Before the financial crisis, the Thai economy had years of manufacturing-led economic growth—averaging 9.4% for the decade up to 1996. Relatively abundant and inexpensive labor and natural resources, fiscal conservatism, open foreign investment policies, and encouragement of the private sector underlay the economic success in the years up to 1997. The economy is essentially a free-enterprise system. Certain services, such as power generation, transportation, and communications, are state-owned and operated, but the government is considering privatizing them in the wake of the financial crisis.

The Royal Thai Government welcomes foreign investment, and investors who are willing to meet certain requirements can apply for special investment privileges through the Board of Investment. To attract additional foreign investment, the government has modified its investment regulations.

The organized labor movement remains weak and divided in Thailand; only 3% of the work force is unionized. In 2000, the State Enterprise Labor Relations Act (SELRA) was passed, giving public sector employees similar rights to those of private sector workers, including the right to unionize.

Roughly 60% of Thailand's labor force is employed in agriculture. Rice is the country's most important crop; Thailand is a major exporter in the world rice market. Other agricultural commodities produced in significant amounts include fish and fishery products, tapioca, rubber, corn, and sugar. Exports of processed foods such as cannedtuna, pineapples, and frozen shrimp are on the rise.

Thailand's increasingly diversified manufacturing sector made the largest contribution to growth during the economic boom. Industries registering rapid increases in production included computers and electronics, garments and footwear, furniture, wood products, canned food, toys, plastic products, gems, and jewelry. High-technology products such as integrated circuits and parts, electrical appliances, and vehicles are now leading Thailand's strong growth in exports.

The United States is Thailand's largest export market and second-largest supplier after Japan. While Thailand's traditional major markets have been North America, Japan, and Europe, economic recovery among Thailand's regional trading partners has helped Thai export growth (5.8% in 2002). Further recovery from the financial crisis depends heavily on increased exports to the rest of Asia and the United States.

Machinery and parts, vehicles, electronic integrated circuits, chemicals, crude oil and fuels, and iron and steel are among Thailand's principal imports. The recent increase in import levels (4.6% in 2002) reflects the need to fuel the production of high-technology items and vehicles.

Thailand is a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Cairns Group of agricultural exporters. Tourism contributes significantly to the Thai economy, and the industry has benefited from the Thai baht's depreciation and Thailand's stability. Tourist arrivals in 2002 (10.9 million) reflected a 7.3% increase from the previous year (10.1 million).

Bangkok and its environs are the most prosperous part of Thailand, and the infertile northeast is the poorest. An overriding concern of successive Thai Governments, and a particularly strong focus of the current government, has been to reduce these regional income differentials, which have been exacerbated by rapid economic growth in and around Bangkok and the financial crisis. The government is trying to stimulate provincial economic growth with programs such as the Eastern Seaboard project and the development of an alternate deep-sea port on Thailand's southern peninsula. It also is conducting discussions with Malaysia to focus on economic development along the Thai-Malaysian border.

Although the economy has demonstrated moderate positive growth since 1999, future performance depends on continued reform of the financial sector, corporate debt restructuring, attracting foreign investment, and increasing exports. Telecommunications, roadways, electricity generation, and ports showed increasing strain during the period of sustained economic growth and may pose a future challenge. Thailand's growing shortage of engineers and skilled technical personnel may limit its future technological creativity and productivity.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Thailand's foreign policy includes support for ASEAN in the interest of regional stability and emphasis on a close and longstanding security relationship with the United States.

Thailand participates fully in international and regional organizations. It has developed increasingly close ties with other ASEAN members—Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Laos, Cambodia, Burma, and Vietnam—whose foreign and economic ministers hold annual meetings. Regional cooperation is progressing in economic, trade, banking, political, and cultural matters. In 2003, Thailand will serve as APEC host. Supachai Panitchpakdi, the former Deputy Prime Minister of Thailand, currently serves as Director-General of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

In recent years, Thailand has taken an increasingly active role on the international stage. When East Timor gained independence from Indonesia, Thailand, for the first time in its history, contributed troops to the international peacekeeping effort. Its troops remain there today as part of a UN peacekeeping force. As part of its effort to increase international ties, Thailand has reached out to such regional organizations as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Thailand has contributed troops to reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq.

U.S.-THAI RELATIONS

Since World War II, the United States and Thailand have developed close relations, as reflected in several bilateral treaties and by both countries' participation in UN multilateral activities and agreements. The principal bilateral arrangement is the 1966 Treaty of Amity and Economic Relations, which facilitates U.S. and Thai companies' economic access. Other important agreements address civil uses of atomic energy, sales of agricultural commodities, investment guarantees, and military and economic assistance.

The United States and Thailand are among the signatories of the 1954 Manila pact of the former Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Article IV(1) of this treaty provides that, in the event of armed attack in the treaty area (which includes Thailand), each member would "act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes." Despite the dissolution of the SEATO in 1977, the Manila pact remains in force and, together with the Thanat-Rusk communique of 1962, constitutes the basis of U.S. security commitments to Thailand. Thailand continues to be a key security ally in Asia, along with Australia, Japan, the Philippines, and South Korea. In October 2003, the Administration notified Congress of its intent to designate Thailand as a Major Non-NATO Ally.

Thailand's stability and independence are important to the maintenance of peace in the region. Economic assistance has been extended in various fields, including rural development, health, family planning, education, and science and technology. The formal USAID program was ended in 1995. However, there are a number of targeted assistance programs which continue in areas of mutually defined importance, including: health and HIV/AIDS programming; refugee assistance; and trafficking in persons. The U.S. Peace Corps in Thailand has approximately 90 volunteers, focused on primary education, with an integrated program involving teacher training, health education, and environmental education.

Thailand has received U.S. military equipment, essential supplies, training, and assistance in the construction and improvement of facilities and installations since 1950. In recent years, U.S. security assistance has consisted of military training programs carried out primarily in the United States. A small U.S. military advisory group in Thailand oversees the delivery of equipment to the Thai Armed Forces and the training of Thai military personnel in its use and maintenance. As part of their mutual defense cooperation over the last decade, Thailand and the United States have developed a vigorous joint military exercise program, which engages all the services of each nation and now averages 40 joint exercises per year.

Thailand is a route for Golden Triangle—the intersection of Burma, Laos, and Thailand—heroin trafficking to international markets, including the United States. While Thailand is no longer a significant opium producer, money laundering, police and military corruption, and a continuing narcotics flow out of Burma have hindered efforts to limit its role as a transfer point. The United States and Thailand work closely together and with the United Nations on a broad range of programs to halt the flow of narcotics. A memorandum of understanding was signed in 1971 affirming U.S.-Thai cooperation, resulting in a strengthened Thai enforcement program. The U.S. has extended financial support for the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Bangkok, which provides counternarcotics and anti-crime training to participants from regional countries. With U.S. support, Thailand has a good record in crop control, law enforcement, and demand reduction.

Trade and Investment

The United States is Thailand's largest trading partner; in 2002 imports from Thailand totaled $15 billion, and exports totaled $4.86 billion, resulting in a U.S. bilateral trade deficit of $10 billion. The U.S., Japan, Singapore, and the European Union are among Thailand's largest foreign investors. American investment, concentrated in the petroleum and chemicals, finance, consumer products, and automobile production sectors, is estimated at $16-$18 billion.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Bangkok (E), 120 Wireless Rd. • APO AP 96546, Tel [66] (2) 205-4000, Fax 254-2990, 205-4131; COM 3rd Fl., Diethelm Towers Bldg., Tower A, 93/1 Wireless Rd., 10330, Tel 255-4365 thru 7, Fax 255-2915.

Chiang Mai (CG), 387 Vidhayanond Rd., Chaing Mai 50300 • U.S. Embassy, Box C, APO AP 96546, Tel [66] (53) 252-629, Fax 252-633.

Last Modified: Monday, December 15, 2003

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet
May 27, 2003

Country Description: Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. Approximately 95 percent of the population is Buddhist and ethnically Thai, yet Thailand is a multicultural country. Most Thais in the northeast are closely related to the Lao people both culturally and linguistically, although a few northeastern provinces have substantial Khmer-speaking populations. The majority of people in the far southern provinces are Muslims who speak a dialect of the Malay language, while there are numerous ethnically distinct hill tribes in the north which practice Protestantism and animism. Thailand is a popular travel destination, and tourist facilities and services are available throughout the country.

Entry and Exit Requirements: U.S. citizen tourists staying for less than 30 days do not require a visa, but must possess a passport and onward/return ticket. A Passenger Service Charge, currently 500 baht (USD equivalent as of September 2002: $11.69), must be paid in Thai baht when departing the country from any of Thailand's international airports. Thailand's Entry/Exit information is subject to change without notice. For further information on Thailand's entry/exit requirements, contact the Royal Thai Embassy, 1024 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20007, telephone (202) 944-3600, or Internet website http://www.thaiembdc.org, or the Thai consulates in Chicago, Los Angeles, or New York City.

Safety and Security: The State Department is concerned that there is an increased risk of terrorism in Southeast Asia, including Thailand. American citizens traveling to Thailand should therefore exercise caution, especially in locations where Westerners congregate such as clubs, discos, bars, restaurants, hotels, places of worship, schools, outdoor recreation venues, tourist areas, beach resorts, and other places frequented by foreigners. They should remain vigilant with regard to their personal security and avoid crowds and demonstrations. For more information on terrorist threats against Americans worldwide, and steps that U.S. citizens should take as a result of these threats, please see the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement at http://www.travel.state.gov.

The far south of Thailand has experienced incidents of criminally and politically motivated violence, including incidents attributed to armed local separatist/extremist groups. Although these groups focus primarily on Thai government interests, U.S. citizen travelers should remain vigilant with regard to their personal security.

Tourists should also exercise caution in remote areas along the border with Burma. The Thai/Burma border is the site of on-going conflicts between the Burmese Army and armed opposition groups as well as clashes between Thai security forces and armed drug traffickers. In addition, pirates, bandits, and drug traffickers operate in these border areas.

In light of the continuing unsettled situation along Thailand border with Burma, which is subject to frequent closings to all traffic, the Department of State recommends that all Americans exercise caution when traveling in remote or rural areas immediately adjacent to the Burma border. There remains a possibility of significant flare-ups of military activity on the Burmese side of the border that could spill over into immediately adjacent areas of northern Thailand. Visitors should travel off-road in undeveloped areas only with local guides who are familiar with the area. As border closings and re-openings occur frequently, U.S. citizens considering traveling into Burma from Thailand should be aware that in the event of a border closure they may not be able to re-enter Thailand.

In February 2000, two Australians camping near the Burma border in Ang Kang Park, in the Fang District, were attacked by robbers. One of the campers was shot and killed. In April 1999, a dozen Thai villagers and tribesmen were killed in separate incidents near Thailand's northern border with Burma. In January 2000, 10 gunmen from two fringe groups in Burma crossed into Thailand and took several hundred people hostage at a provincial hospital in Ratchaburi Province. All ten gunmen were killed when Thai authorities stormed the hospital to end the crisis. Tourists should obtain information from Thai authorities about whether official border crossing points are open, and should cross into neighboring countries only at designated crossing points. Licensed guides can help ensure that trekkers do not cross inadvertently into a neighboring country.

Travelers should be aware that there are occasional incidents of violence on Thailand's northern and eastern borders with Laos. In July 2000, five people were killed and several fled to Thailand during a skirmish between apparent insurgents and government forces in Laos near the eastern border crossing at Chong Mek. Additionally, two U.S. citizens in 1999 and one in early 2000 were reported missing after attempting to cross illegally into Laos at the Lao-Thai border.

Although tourists have not been targeted specifically by this occasional violence, due caution remains advisable. It is recommended that persons wishing to travel to border areas check with the Thai tourist police and the U.S. Consulate General in Chiang Mai or the U.S. Embassy in Bangkok.

Strong seasonal undercurrents at popular beach resorts pose a sometimes fat al threat to surfers and swimmers. During the monsoon season from May through October, drowning is the leading cause of death for tourists visiting Phuket. Some, but not all, beaches have warning flags to indicate the degree of risk (red sea condition dangerous for swimming; yellow sea condition rough, swim with caution; green sea condition stable). In July 2001, an American tourist died in a surfing accident in Phuket at a beach that was not marked.

Crime Information: In recent years crimes of opportunity such as pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, and burglaries have become more common, though the crime threat in Bangkok remains less than in many American cities. Violent crimes against foreigners are relatively rare. Travelers should be especially wary when walking in crowded markets, tourist sites and bus or train stations. Women are generally not subject to sexual harassment.

Reports of serious transportation-related crimes involving taxis or three-wheeled vehicles called "tuk tuks" are relatively rare, though fare scams can occur. More serious are incidents in which drivers tout disreputable gem stores or entertainment venues because they receive money for bringing in customers. Travelers should always use official metered taxis in Bangkok and never enter a cab that has anyone besides a driver in it. In March 2000, a U.S. citizen was attacked and robbed by a taxi driver and an accomplice picked up en route by the driver.

There are occasional reports of scopolamine druggings perpetrated by prostitutes or unscrupulous bar workers for the purpose of robbery. Tourists have also been victimized by drugged food and drink, usually offered by a friendly stranger (sometimes posing as fellow traveler). In addition, casual acquaintances met in a bar or on the street may pose a threat. Travelers are advised to avoid leaving drinks or food unattended and should avoid going to unfamiliar venues alone. Some trekking tour companies, particularly in Northern Thailand, have been known to make drugs available to trekkers. In July 2001, an American died after smoking opium in a northern hill tribe village. Travelers should not accept drugs of any kind, as the drugs may be altered or harmful, and the use or sale of drugs is illegal.

Scams involving gems, city tours, entertainment venues and credit cards are also common, especially in heavily visited by tourists. Credit cards should be used only in reputable, established businesses, and the amount charged should be checked for accuracy. Travelers should not accept tours or offers from touts who solicit on the streets. Shopping at lesser-known gem stores carries a serious risk; the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) receives over 1,000 complaints each year from visitors who have been cheated on gem purchases. The gems often turn out to be greatly overpriced and money-back guarantees are not honored. Lists of gem dealers who have promised to abide by TAT guidelines are available online at http://www.tat.or.th/do/gems.htm, while information on gem scams can be found on the Thai Tourist Police website at http://www.police.go.th/touristpolice/. A traveler who has fallen victim to a gem scam should contact the local branch of the Tourist Police, or call their country-wide toll-free number: 1155. Finally, bars or entertainment venues in tourist areas may at times try to charge exorbitant amounts for drinks or unadvertised cover charges. If victimized in this fashion, travelers should not attempt to resolve the problem themselves, but should instead pay the price demanded and then contact the nearest branch of the Tourist Police for help in getting restitution. (The toll-free number for the Tourist Police is indicated above.)

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a more trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, via the internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/index.html or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, contact the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate for assistance. The embassy/consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities: Medical treatment is good. This is particularly true in Bangkok, where excellent facilities exist for routine, long-term and emergency health care. Thailand has been experiencing an epidemic of HIV infection and AIDS. Heterosexual transmission accounts for most HIV infections, and HIV is common among prostitutes of both sexes. Additionally, alcoholic beverages, medications and drugs may be more potent and of a different composition than similar ones in the United States. Several U.S. citizen tourists die in Thailand each year of apparent premature heart attacks after drinking alcohol or using drugs.

Medical Insurance: U.S. medical insurance is not always valid outside the United States. U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas may face extreme difficulties.

Travelers should check with their insurance company to confirm whether their policies offer coverage overseas, including provision for medical evacuation, and for adequacy of coverage. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars or more. Travelers should ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas hospital or doctor or whether the traveler must pay first and then be reimbursed later. Some insurance policies may also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Persons with serious medical conditions who travel to Thailand may wish to consider insurance that specifically covers medical evacuation, as the cost for medical evacuation from Thailand can be extremely expensive.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, "Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad," available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page or autofax: (202) 647-3000.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/iht.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Thailand is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Good
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Good
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Good
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Traffic moves on the left in Thailand. The city of Bangkok has heavy traffic composed of motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, and three-wheeled "tuk-tuks." For safety, and to avoid jaywal king fines, pedestrians should use overhead walkways whenever possible. Accidents are common, and those involving motorcycles can be particularly deadly. The Embassy strongly recommends that Americans refrain from riding motorcycles. In 2000, four Americans were killed in traffic accidents in Thailand, three of whom were riding motorcycles; during the first nine months of 2001, there were five American traffic deaths in Thailand, two involving motorcycles. Use of motorcycle helmets is mandatory, but this law is seldom enforced. Congested roads and a scarcity of ambulances can make it difficult for accident victims to receive timely medical attention. Paved roads connect Thailand's major cities, but most have only two lanes. Slow-moving trucks limit speed and visibility. Speeding and reckless passing in all regions is common. Consumption of alcohol, amphetamines and other stimulants by commercial drivers is also common. In recent years there have been serious bus crashes involving foreign passengers on overnight bus trips; one of these crashes resulted in fatalities. Motorists may wish to obtain accident insurance that covers medical and liability costs. The more affluent driver, even if not at fault, is frequently compelled to cover the expenses of the other party in an accident.

Travelers may wish to use Bangkok's elevated "Skytrain" mass transit system to travel about the city. The system operates everyday from 6 a.m. to midnight.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Thailand's civil aviation authority as Category 1 –- in compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Thailand's air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/iasa.pdf. The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) separately assesses some foreign air carriers for suitability as official providers of air services. For information regarding the DOD policy on specific carriers, travelers may contact DOD at (618) 256-4801.

Customs Regulations: Thai customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Thailand of items such as firearms, explosives, narcotics and drugs, radio equipment, books or other printed material and video or audio recordings which might be considered subversive to national security, obscene, or in any way harmful to the public interest and cultural property. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Thailand in Washington, D.C., or one of the Thai consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Thai customs authorities encourage the use of an ATA (Admission Temporaire/Temporary Admission) Carnet for the temporary admission of professional equipment, commercial samples, and/or goods for exhibitions and fair purposes. ATA Carnet Headquarters, located at the U.S. Council for International Business, 1212 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10036, issues and guarantees the ATA Carnet in the United States. For additional information call (212) 354-4480, send an e-mail to [email protected], or visit www.uscib.org for details.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Thai laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned.

In this connection, it is a criminal offense to make negative comments about the King or other members of the royal family. Thais hold the King in the highest regard, and it is a serious crime to make critical or defamatory comments about him. This particular crime, dubbed " lese majeste," is punishable by a prison sentence of three to fifteen years. Purposely tearing or destroying Thai bank notes, which carry an image of the King, may be considered such an offense.

Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking of illegal drugs in Thailand are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. The U.S. Embassy frequently does not learn of the arrest of U.S. citizens for minor drug offenses, particularly in southern Thailand, until several days after the incident. Prison conditions in Thailand are harsh, and Thailand has a death sentence for serious drug offenses. A recent change in Thai law lowered threshold quantities that may result in its imposition. After a period when the death penalty was seldom imposed, Thailand is once again executing convicted traffickers. There are at present approximately fifteen Americans serving long-term prison sentences in Thailand, but in previous years the total went above sixty. A ruse sometimes used to transport drugs out of the country involves offering an American a free vacation to Thailand, then requesting the American's assistance in transporting excess "luggage" or gifts back to the United States. The American's claim that he or she did not know that the package contained drugs has not been a successful defense in Thailand.

Children's Issues: For general information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to the Office of Children's Issues home page on the internet at http://travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone (202) 312-9700. Additional questions may be addressed to the appropriate country officer of the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Children's Issues, SA-22, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C., 30520, telephone 202-312-9700, fax 202-312-9743.

Registration/Embassy and Consulate Locations: Americans living in or visiting Thailand are encouraged to register, either online, or in person at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Bangkok or the U.S. Consulate General in Chiang Mai. At both locations updated information on travel and security in Thailand is available. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is located at 95 Wireless Road in Bangkok; the U.S. mailing address is APO AP 96546-0001. The central switchboard number is (66-2) 205-4000; the American Citizen Services Unit number is (66-2) 205-4049; and the fax number is (66-2) 205-4103. The website for the U.S. Embassy is <http://usa.or.th>. American citizens can register online via the website. Questions regarding American Citizens Services can be submitted by E-mail to <[email protected]>. The U.S. Consulate General in Ciang Mai is located at 387 Wichay anond Road; the U.S. mailing address is Box, C, APO AP 96546. The telephone number is (66-53) 252-629 and the fax number is (66-53) 252-633.

International Parental Child Abduction

The information below has been edited from the report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, American Citizen Services. For more information, please read the Guarding Against International Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at travel.state.gov

General Information: Under Thai law, the question of child custody is addressed in Book Five of the Thai Civil and Commercial Code under the general headings Termination of Marriage and Rights and Duties of Parent and Child. The relevant portions of the law follow in full:

Section 1520. In case of divorce by mutual consent, the agreement for the exercise of parental power over each of the children shall be made in writing. In the absence of such agreement or (if) an agreement thereon cannot be reached, the matter shall be decided by the court.

In case of divorce by judgment of the court, the parental power belongs to the party in whose favor the judgement is given, unless it is decided by the court that the parental power shall belong to the other party, or that a third person shall be the guardian.

Section 1521. If it appears that the guardian as provided in Section 1520 behaves himself or herself improperly or there is a change of circumstances after the appointment, the court has the power, after taking into consideration the happiness and interest of the child, to give an order appointing a new guardian.

Although the parental power belongs to one party, the other has the right to continue such personal relation with the child as may be reasonable according to the circumstances.

Section 1522. In the case of divorce by mutual consent, an arrangement shall be made and contained in the agreement of divorce as to who, both of the spouses or either spouse, will contribute to the maintenance of the children and how much is the contribution. In case of divorce by judgment of the court or in case the agreement of divorce contains no provisions concerning the maintenance of the children, the court shall determine it.

Section 1566. A child is subject to parental power as long as he is not suijuris. The parental power is exercised by the father or the mother in any of the following cases:

• (1) The father or mother is dead;
• (2) It is uncertain whether the father or the mother is living or dead;
• (3) The father or the mother has been adjudged incompetent or quasi-incompetent;
• (4) The father or the mother is placed in a hospital by reason of mental infirmity;
• (5) The parental power has been granted to the father or the mother by an order of the court.

The parental power is exercised by the mother, when the child was born out of wedlock and has not yet been legitimated by the father according to Section 1547.

Section 1567. A person exercising parental power has the right:

• (l) to determine the child's place of residence
• (2) to punish the child in a reasonable manner for disciplinary purposes;
• (3) to require the child to do such work as may be reasonable to his ability and condition in life,
• (4) to demand the return of the child from any person who unlawfully detains him.

As shown above, the question of child custody under Thai law is addressed mainly in the context of termination of marriage. It is therefore difficult to speculate about what kind of stance the Thai courts would take toward a custody decision made in the absence of the termination of a marriage, e.g., in the event of a legal separation.

As a matter of law, foreigners are treated on an equal basis with Thai citizens in matters relating to child custody.

Thai law makes no distinction between the rights of the father and mother on issues of child custody..