IRAN

Compiled from the June 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Islamic Republic of Iran

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-IRANIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1.6 million sq. km. (636, 294 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska.

Cities: Capital—Tehran. Other cities—Isfahan, Tabriz, Mashhad, Shiraz.

Terrain: Desert and mountains.

Climate: Semiarid; subtropical along the Caspian coast.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Iranian(s).

Population: (2001 est) 66 million.

Population growth rate: (1998) 1.66%.

Ethnic groups: Persians 51%, Azeri 24%, Gilaki and Mazandarani 8%, Kurd 7%, Arab 3%, Lur 2%, Baloch 2%, Turkmen 2%, other 1%.

Religions: Shi'a Muslim 89% Sunni Muslim 10%; Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, and Baha'i 1%.

Languages: Persian and Persian dialects 58%, Turkic and Turkic dialects 26%, Kurdish 9%, Luri 2%, Balochi 1%, Arabic 1%, Turkish 1%, other 2%.

Education: Literacy —age 15 and over can read and write; (1997) total population 73.4.

Health: (2001 est) Infant mortality rate—26 deaths/1,000 live births (1996). Life expectancy at birth—total population: 70.7 (1998).

Work force: (1999) Agriculture—23%; manufacturing—31%. There is a shortage of skilled labor.

Government

Type: Islamic republic.

Constitution: Ratified December 1979, revised 1989.

Branches: Executive—"Leader of the Islamic Revolution" (head of state), president, and Council of Ministers. Legislative—290-member Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles). Judicial—Supreme Court.

Political parties: The following organizations appeared to have achieved considerable success at elections to the sixth Majles in early 2000: Assembly of the Followers of the Imam's Line, Freethinkers' Front Islamic Iran Participation Front, Moderation and Development Party, Servants of Construction Party, and Society of Self-sacrificing Devotees.

Administrative subdivisions: 28 provinces.

Suffrage: Universal at 15.

Economy

GDP: (2000 est.; purchasing power parity) $413 billion.

GDP real growth rate: (2000 est) 3%.

GDP: (2000 est.; per capita purchasing power parity) $6,300. GDP (1999; composition by sector) agriculture 21%, industry 23%, services 48%, oil 8%.

Per capita income: (est.) $1,500.

Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, and some mineral deposits.

Agriculture: Principal products—wheat, rice, other grains, sugarbeets, fruits, nuts, cotton, dairy products, wool, caviar; not self-sufficient in food.

Industry: Types—petroleum, petrochemicals, textiles, cement and building materials, food processing (particularly sugar refining and vegetable oil production), metal fabricating (steel and copper).

Trade: (1999) Exports—$19.7 billion: petroleum 85%, carpets, fruits, nuts. Imports—$13.5 billion: food, machinery, and semifinished goods. Major markets/suppliers—Germany, Japan, Italy, South Korea.

PEOPLE

Almost two-thirds of Iran's people are of Aryan origin—their ancestors migrated from Central Asia. The major groups in this category include Persians, Kurds, Lurs, and Baluchi. The remainder are primarily Turkic but also include Arabs, Armenians, Jews, and Assyrians.

The 1979 Islamic revolution and the war with Iraq transformed Iran' s class structure politically, socially, and economically. In general, however, Iranian society remains divided into urban, market-town, village, and tribal groups. Clerics, called mullahs, dominate politics and nearly all aspects of Iranian life, both urban and rural. After the fall of the Pahlavi regime in 1979, much of the urban upper class of prominent merchants, industrialists, and professionals, favored by the former Shah, lost standing and influence to the senior clergy and their supporters. Bazaar merchants, who were allied with the clergy against the Pahlavi shahs, also have gained political and economic power since the revolution. The urban working class has enjoyed somewhat enhanced status and economic mobility, spurred in part by opportunities provided by revolutionary organizations and the government bureaucracy.

Unemployment, a major problem even before the revolution, has many causes, including population growth, the war with Iraq, and shortages of raw materials and trained managers. Farmers and peasants received a psychological boost from the attention given them by the Islamic regime but appear to be hardly better off in economic terms. The government has made progress on rural development, including electrification and road building but has not yet made a commitment to land redistribution.

Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 10% belong to the Sunni branch, which predominates in neighboring Muslim countries. Non-Muslim minorities include Zoroastrians, Jews, Baha'is, and Christians.

HISTORY

The ancient nation of Iran, historically known to the West as Persia and once a major empire in its own right, has been overrun frequently and has had its territory altered throughout the centuries. Invaded by Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, and others—and often caught up in the affairs of larger powers—Iran has always reasserted its national identity and has developed as a distinct political and cultural entity.

Archeological findings have placed knowledge of Iranian prehistory at middle paleolithic times (100,000 years ago). The earliest sedentary cultures date from 18,000-14,000 years ago. The sixth millennium B.C. saw a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers. Many dynasties have ruled Iran, the first of which was the Achaemenid (559-330 B.C.), a dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great. After the Hellenistic period (300-250 B.C.) came the Parthian (250 B.C.-226 A.D.) and the Sassanian (226-651) dynasties.

The seventh century Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran was followed by conquests by the Seljuk Turks, the Mongols, and Tamerlane. Iran underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736), the most prominent figure of which was Shah Abbas. The conqueror Nadir Shah and his successors were followed by the Zand dynasty, founded by Karim Kahn, and later the Qajar (1795-1925) and the Pahlavi dynasties (1925-1979).

Modern Iranian history began with a nationalist uprising against the Shah (who remained in power) in 1905, the granting of a limited constitution in 1906, and the discovery of oil in 1908. In 1921, Reza Khan, an Iranian officer of the Persian Cossack Brigade, seized control of the government. In 1925, he made himself Shah, ruling as Reza Shah Pahlavi for almost 16 years and installing the new Pahlavi dynasty.

Under his reign, Iran began to modernize and to secularize politics, and the central government reasserted its authority over the tribes and provinces. In September 1941, following the Allies' (U.K.-Soviet Union) occupation of western Iran, Reza Shah was forced to abdicate. His son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, became Shah and ruled until 1979.

During World War II, Iran was a vital link in the Allied supply line for lend-lease supplies to the Soviet Union. After the war, Soviet troops stationed in northwestern Iran not only refused to withdraw but backed revolts that established short-lived, pro-Soviet separatist regimes in the northern regions of Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. These were ended in 1946. The Azerbaijan revolt crumbled after U.S. and UN pressure forced a Soviet withdrawal and Iranian forces suppressed the Kurdish revolt.

In 1951, Premier Mohammed Mossadeq, a militant nationalist, forced the parliament to nationalize the British-owned oil industry. Mossadeq was opposed by the Shah and was removed, but he quickly returned to power. The Shah fled Iran but returned when supporters staged a coup against Mossadeq in August 1953. Mossadeq was then arrested by pro-Shah army forces. In 1961, Iran initiated a series of economic, social, and administrative reforms that became known as the Shah's White Revolution. The core of this program was land reform. Modernization and economic growth proceeded at an unprecedented rate, fueled by Iran's vast petroleum reserves, the third-largest in the world.

In 1978, domestic turmoil swept the country as a result of religious and political opposition to the Shah's rule and programs—especially SAVAK, the hated internal security and intelligence service. In January 1979, the Shah left Iran; he died abroad several years after.

On February 1, 1979, exiled religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned from France to direct a revolution resulting in a new, theocratic republic guided by Islamic principles. Back in Iran after 15 years in exile in Turkey, Iraq, and France, he became Iran's national religious leader. Following Khomeini's death on June 3, 1989, the Assembly of Experts—an elected body of senior clerics—chose the outgoing president of the republic, Ali Khamenei, to be his successor as national religious leader in what proved to be a smooth transition.

In August 1989, Ali Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani, the speaker of the National Assembly, was elected president by an overwhelming majority. He was re-elected June 1993, with a more modest majority; some Western observers attributed the reduced voter turnout to disenchantment with the deteriorating economy. (Ali) Mohammad Khatami-Ardakani, elected president in August 1997 with an overwhelming majority, was re-elected, again with a majority in June 2001.

GOVERNMENT

The December 1979 Iranian constitution defines the political, economic, and social order of the Islamic republic. It declares that Shi'a Islam of the Twelver (Jaafari) sect is Iran's official religion. The country is governed by secular and religious leaders and governing bodies, and duties often overlap. The chief ruler is a religious leader or, in the absence of a single leader, a council of religious leaders. The constitution stipulates that this national religious leader or members of the council of leaders are to be chosen from the clerical establishment on the basis of their qualifications and the high esteem in which they are held by Iran's Muslim population. This leader or council appoints the six religious members of the Council of Guardians (the six lay members—lawyers—are named by the National Consultative Assembly, or Majles); appoints the highest judicial authorities, who must be religious jurists; and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The Council of Guardians, in turn, certifies the competence of candidates for the presidency and the National Assembly.

The president of the republic is elected by universal suffrage to a 4-year term by an absolute majority of votes and supervises the affairs of the executive branch. The president appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers (members of the cabinet), coordinates government decisions, and selectsg overnment policies to be placed before the National Assembly. The National Assembly consists of 290 members elected to a 4-year term. The members are elected by direct and secret ballot from among the candidates approved to run by the Council of Guardians. All legislation from the assembly must be reviewed by the Council of Guardians. The Council's six lawyers vote only on limited questions of the constitutionality of legislation; the religious members consider all bills for conformity to Islamic principles.

In 1988, Ayatollah Khomeini created the Council for Expediency, which resolves legislative issues on which the Majles and the Council of Guardians fail to reach an agreement. Since 1989, it has been used to advise the national religious leader on matters of national policy as well. It is composed of the heads of the three branches of government, the clerical members of the Council of Guardians, and members appointed by the national religious leader for 3-year terms. Cabinet members and Majles committee chairs also serve as temporary members when issues under their jurisdictions are considered.

Judicial authority is constitutionally vested in the Supreme Court and the four-member High Council of the Judiciary; these are two separate groups with overlapping responsibilities and one head. Together, they are responsible for supervising the enforcement of all laws and for establishing judicial and legal policies.

The military is charged with defending Iran's borders, while the Revolutionary Guard Corps is charged mainly with maintaining internal security. Iran has 28 provinces, each headed by a governor general. The provinces are further div ided into counties, districts, and villages.

Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 2/12/04

Supreme Leader: KHAMENEI, Ali Hoseini-, Ayatollah

President: KHATAMI-Ardakani, (Ali) Mohammad, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Speaker of the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles): Mahdavi-KARUBI, Mehdi, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Secretary of the Cabinet: RAMEZANZADEH, Abdollah

First Vice Pres.: AREF-Yazdi, Mohammad Reza

Vice Pres. for Atomic Energy: AQAZADEH-Khoi, Qolam Reza

Vice Pres. for Environmental Protection: EBTEKAR, Masumeh

Vice Pres. for Legal & Parliamentary Affairs: ABTAHI, Mohammad Ali, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Vice Pres. for Physical Training: MEHR- ALIZADEH, Mohsen

Vice Pres. for Management & Planning: SATARI-FAR, Mohammad

Min. of Agriculture Jihad: HOJATI, Mahmud

Min. of Commerce: SHARIAT- MADARI, Mohammad

Min. of Communication & Information Technology: MOTAMEDI, Ahmad

Min. of Cooperatives: SUFI, Ali

Min. of Defense & Armed Forces Logistics: SHAMKANI, Ali, VAdm.

Min. of Economic Affairs & Finance: MAZAHERI, Tahmasb

Min. of Education & Training: HAZI- QAEM, Morteza

Min. of Energy: BITARAF, Habibollah

Min. of Foreign Affairs: KHARAZI, (Ali Naqi) Kamal

Min. of Health, Treatment, & Medical Education: PEZESHKIAN, Masud

Min. of Housing & Urban Development: ABDOL-ALIZADEH, Ali

Min. of Industries & Mines: JAHANGIRI, Eshaq

Min. of Intelligence & Security: YUNESI, (Mohammad) Ali, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Min. of Interior: MUSAVI-LARI, Abdol Vahed, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Min. of Islamic Culture & Guidance: MASJED-JAMEI, Ahmad

Min. of Justice: SHOSHTARI, Mohammad Esmail, Hojjat ol-Eslam

Min. of Labor & Social Affairs: HOSEINI, Safdar

Min. of Petroleum: NAMDAR- ZANGANEH, Bijan

Min. of Roads & Transport: KHORAM, Ahmad

Min. of Science, Research, & Technology: TOWFIQI-Darian, Jafar

Governor, Central Bank: SHEIBANI, Ebrahim

Head of Interest Section in the US: JAZINI, Ali

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: ZARIF-Khonsari, Mohammad Javad

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Iran's post-revolution difficulties have included an 8-year war with Iraq, internal political struggles and unrest, and economic disorder. The early days of the regime were characterized by severe human rights violations and political turmoil, including the seizure of the U.S. embassy compound and its occupants on November 4, 1979, by Iranian militants.

By mid-1982, a succession of power struggles eliminated first the center of the political spectrum and then the leftists, leaving only the clergy. There has been some moderation of excesses internally, but Iran still has a serious human rights problem. Internationally, Iran remains a major state sponsor of terrorism.

The Islamic Republican Party (IRP) was Iran's dominant political party until its dissolution in 1987; Iran now has a variety of parties and groups engaged in political activities, some oriented along ideological lines; others more akin to professional groupings engaging in political activities. The Iranian Government is opposed by a few armed political groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq (People's Mojahedin of Iran), the People's Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party.

ECONOMY

Pre-revolutionary Iran's economic development was rapid. Traditionally an agricultural society, by the 1970s, Iran had achieved significant industrialization and economic modernization. However, the pace of growth had slowed dramatically by 1978, just before the Islamic revolution. Since the revolution, increased government involvement in the economy has further stunted growth. Iran's current difficulties can be traced to a combination of factors. Economic activity, severely disrupted by the revolution, was further depressed by the war with Iraq and by the decline of oil prices beginning in late 1985. After the war with Iraq ended, the situation began to improve: Iran's GDP grew for 2 years running, partly from an oil windfall in 1990, and there was a substantial increase in imports.

A decrease in oil revenues in 1991 and growing external debt, though, dampened optimism. In March 1989, Khomeini had approved Rafsanjani's 5-year plan for economic development, which allowed Iran to seek foreign loans. But mismanagement and inefficient bureaucracy, as well as political and ideological infighting, have hampered the formulation and execution of coherent economic policies. Today, Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and smallscale private trading and service ventures. President Khatami has continued to follow the market reform plans of former President Rafsanjani and has indicated that he will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy, although he has made little progress toward that goal.

Official unemployment was estimated to be 16% for 2002. Although Islam guarantees the right to private ownership, banks and some industries—including the petroleum, transportation, utilities, and mining sectors—were nationalized after the revolution. Iran has, however, been pursuing some privatization. The import-dependent industrial sector is further plagued by low labor productivity and shortages of raw materials and spare parts.

Agriculture also has suffered from shortages of capital, raw materials, and equipment, as well as from the war with Iraq; in addition, a major area of dissension within the regime has been how to proceed with land reform.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Khomeini's revolutionary regime initiated sharp changes from the foreign policy pursued by the Shah, particularly in reversing the country's orientation toward the West. In the Middle East, Iran's only significantally has been Syria, but Iran has made great strides in improving relations with its Gulf neighbors, particularly Saudi Arabia. Iran's regional goals are dominated by wanting to establish a leadership role, curtail the presence of the United States and other outside powers, and build trade ties. In broad terms, Iran's "Islamic foreign policy" emphasizes:

• Vehement anti-U.S. and anti-Israel stances;
• Eliminating outside influence in the region;
• Support for Muslim political movements abroad; and
• A great increase in diplomatic contacts with developing countries.

Editor's Update
April 2004

A report on important events that have taken place since the last State Department revision of this Background Note.

On February 20, 2004, parliamentary elections were held in Iran. In January 2004, the 12-member Guardian Council disqualified 3,533 out of 8,144 prospective candidates for election to the Majlis. Most of them were reformists. Although some of the disqualifications were later reversed, the most prominent reformist candidates, including 80 incumbent Majlis deputies, were prevented from standing for election. The sweeping victory by conservatives in the election was seen to mark the end of President Mohammed Khatami's six-year political and social reform project. Khatami's second and final term in office expires in 2005. With conservatives now outnumbering reformists in the Majlis four to one, the conservatives seem certain to ensure the election of a president supportive of their cause in 2005.

In October 2003, under pressure from visiting foreign ministers from France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, Iran agreed to sign a protocol with the United Nations that would allow stricter inspections of its nuclear industry. Surrounding the decision were concerns on the part of the international community that Iran was trying to produce nuclear weapons, an allegation Iran denied. Iran signed the Additional Protocol to the 1968 Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty in December 2003. The signing marked the culmination of a process that throughout 2003 saw Iran moving towards greater compliance with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to avoid the prospect of UN Security Council sanctions. IAEA head Mohamed El Baradei said Iran had concealed "experiments in enrichment and processing" nuclear material that potentially could be used in the building of nuclear weapons. In March 2004, El Baradei announced he was "seriously concerned " about omissions in Iran's declaration in 2003 that it was not attempting to build nuclear weapons. El Baradei stated that Iran's failure to declare that it was researching advanced centrifuge designs capable of producing highly enriched uranium was cause for serious concern. It was revealed in early 2004 that Iran had purchased centrifuge parts on the black market from Pakistan's former chief weapons scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan.

Despite these guidelines, however, bilateral relations are frequently confused and contradictory due to Iran's oscillation between pragmatic and ideological concerns.

The country's foreign relations since the revolution have been tumultuous. In addition to the ongoing U.S. hostage crisis, Iraq invaded Iran in September 1980. Much of the dispute between the two countries centered around sovereignty over the waterway between the two countries, the Shatt al-Arab, although underlying causes included each nation's overt desire for the overthrow of the other's gov ernment. Iran demanded the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Iranian territory and the return to the status quo ante for the Shatt al-Arab as established under the 1975 Algiers Agreement signed by Iraq and Iran. After 8 punishing years of war, in July 1988, Iran agreed to UN Security Council Resolution 598, which called for a cease-fire. The cease-fire was implemented on August 20, 1988; neither nation had made any real gains in the war.

Iran's relations with many of its Arab neighbors have been strained by Iranian attempts to spread its Islamic revolution. In 1981, Iran supported a plot to overthrow the Bahrain Government. In 1983, Iran expressed support for Shi'ites who bombed Western embassies in Kuwait, and in 1987, Iranian pilgrims rioted during the Hajj (pilgrimage) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Nations with strong fundamentalist movements, such as Egypt and Algeria, also mistrust Iran. Iran backs Hizballah, Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command—all groups violently opposed to the Arab-Israeli peace process. Relations with west European nations have taken a turn for the better with Iran attempting to present itself as a more reliable partner in diplomatic and commercial affairs.

Iran maintains regular diplomatic and commercial relations with Russia and the former Soviet Republics. Both Iran and Russia believe they have important national interests at stake in developments in Central Asia and the Transcaucasus, particularly regarding energy resources from the Caspian Sea. Russian and other sales of military equipment and technology to Iran concern Iran's neighbors and the United States.

Iran spends about 4% of its GDP on its military. Branches of its military include ground forces, a navy, an air force, and Revolutionary Guard Corps. The Iran-Iraq war took a heavy toll on these military forces. Iran is trying to modernize its military and acquire weapons of mass destruction; it does not yet have, but continues to seek, nuclear capabilities.

U.S.-IRANIAN RELATIONS

On November 4, 1979, militant Iranian students occupied the American embassy in Tehran with the support of Ayatollah Khomeini. Fifty-two Americans were held hostage for 444 days. On April 7, 1980, the United States broke diplomatic relations with Iran, and on April 24, 1981, the Swiss Government assumed representation of U.S. interests in Tehran. Iranian interests in the United States are represented by the Government of Pakistan.

In accordance with the Algiers declaration of January 20, 1981, the Iran-U.S. Claims Tribunal (located in The Hague, Netherlands) was established for the purpose of handling claims of U.S. nationals against Iran and of Iranian nationals against the United States. U.S. contact with Iran through The Hague covers only legal matters.

Commercial relations between Iran and the United States are restricted by U.S. sanctions and consist mainly of Iranian purchases of food and medical products and U.S. purchases of carpets and food. The U.S. Government prohibits most trade with Iran.

There are serious obstacles to improved relations between the two countries. The U.S. Government defines its areas of objectionable Iranian behavior as the following:

• Iranian efforts to acquire nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction;
• Its support for and involvement in international terrorism;
• Its support for violent opposition to the Middle East peace process; and
• Its dismal human rights record.

The United States has had discussions with Iranian representatives within the UN framework on the issue of Afghanistan and reserves the right to similarly discuss other issues when it serves U.S. interests. The United States believes, however, that normal relations are impossible until Iran's policies change.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet
September 8, 2003

Country Description: Iran is a constitutional Islamic republic, governed by executive and legislative branches that derive national leadership primarily through the Muslim clergy. Shia Islam is the official religion of Iran, and Islamic law is the basis of the authority of the state. The workweek in Iran is Saturday through Thursday; however, many government offices and private companies are closed on Thursdays. Friday is a public holiday for all establishments. Offices in Iran are generally open to the public during the morning hours only.

Entry and Exit Requirements:

Should you decide to travel to Iran despite the current Travel Warning, a passport and visa are required. The Iranian In terests Section of the Embassy of Pakistan is located at 2209 Wisconsin Ave. N.W, Washington, DC. 20007; tel 202-965-4990, 91, 92, 93, 94, 99, fax 202-965-1073, 202-965-4990 (Automated Fax-On - Demand after office hours). Their Internet Website is http://www.daftar.org (click on "English"). U.S. passports are valid for travel to Iran. However, the authorities sometimes confiscate the U.S. passports of U.S.-Iranian dual nationals upon arrival.

U.S.-Iranian dual nationals have been denied permission to depart Iran documented as U.S. citizens. To prevent the confiscation of U.S. passports, the Department of State suggests that dual nationals leave their U.S. passports at the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate overseas for safekeeping before entering Iran, and use their Iranian passports to enter the country. To facilitate their travel if their U.S. passports are confiscated, dual nationals may, prior to entering Iran, obtain in their Iranian passports the necessary visas for the country which they will transit on their return to the U.S., where they may apply for a new U.S. passport.

Alternately, dual nationals whose U.S. passports are confiscated may obtain a "Confirmation of Nationality" from the U.S. Interests Section of the Embassy of Switzerland, which is the U.S. protecting power. This statement, addressed to the relevant foreign embassies in Tehran, enables the travelers to apply for third-country visas in Tehran. Dual nationals finding themselves in this situation should note in advance that the Swiss Embassy would issue this statement only after the traveler's U.S. nationality is confirmed and after some processing delay. Dual nationals must enter and leave the United States on U.S. passports.

All Iranian nationals, including American-Iranian nationals, should have an exit permit stamped in their passports. The stamp is affixed to page 11 or 13 of the Iranian passport when it is issued and remains valid until the expiration date of the passport. Iranian nationals residing abroad are exempted from paying exit taxes if their stay in Iran does not exceed four months. All Iranian nationals living permanently in Iran are required to pay the exit tax upon departing Iran.

Moreover, minor children (under the age of 18) of Iranian citizens must have the father's permission to depart Iran, even if the mother has been granted full custody by an Iranian court. Even the non-Iranian wife of an Iranian citizen (who obtains Iranian nationality through marriage and must convert to Islam) requires the consent of her husband to leave Iran. In case of marital problems, women in Iran are often subject to strict family controls. Because of Islamic law, compounded by the lack of diplomatic relationships between the United States and Iran, the U.S. Interests Section in Tehran can provide very limited assistance if an American woman encounters difficulty in leaving Iran.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Dual Nationality: U.S. citizens who were born in Iran, who have become naturalized citizens of Iran, or who were at one time citizens of Iran, and the children of such persons, are considered Iranian nationals by Iranian authorities. Therefore, despite the fact that these individuals possess U.S. citizenship, they must enter and exit Iran bearing an Iranian passport. Yet some former Iranian nationals have been issued visas in their U.S. passports. Exit visas are required for dual nationals to depart Iran.

In addition to being subject to all Iranian laws affecting U.S. citizens, individuals who possess the nationality of Iran may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on citizens of that country, such as military service or taxes. More specific information on Iranian passport and exit visa requirements may be obtained from the Iranian Interests Section of the Embassy of Pakistan.

Dual nationals sometimes have their U.S. passports confiscated and may be denied permission to leave Iran, or encounter other problems with Iranian authorities. Refer to the above section titled "Entry/Exit Requirements" of this Consular Information Sheet for additional information concerning Dual Nationality. Likewise, Iranian authorities may deny dual nationals access to the U.S. Interests Section in Tehran, because they are considered Iranian citizens. Refer to the below section titled "Consular Access," as well as the Consular Affairs home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov for our Dual Nationality flyer.

Safety and Security: Large-scale demonstrations have taken place in various regions throughout Iran over the past several years as a result of a sometimes volatile political climate. U.S. citizens who travel to Iran despite the Travel Warning against such travel should exercise caution throughout the country and especially in the southeastern area of the country. American citizens should avoid travel to areas bordering Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq.

Iranian security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephones and fax machines may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet website at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

Crime Information: Major crime is not a problem for travelers in Iran, although foreigners occasionally have been victims of petty street crime. In view of possible thefts, passports, disembarkation cards and other important valuables should be kept in hotel safes or other secure locations.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Interests Section at the Swiss Embassy. If you are the victim of a crime while in Iran, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the U.S. Interests Section of the Swiss Embassy in Tehran. The staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlets "A Safe Trip Abroad" and "Tips for Travel to the Middle East and North Africa" for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. These pamphlets are available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Basic medical care and medicines are available in the principal cities of Iran, but may not be available in outlying areas. Medical facilities do not meet U.S. standards and frequently lack medicines and supplies.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost more than $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas health care provider or whether you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, "Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad," available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page or autofax: 202-647-3000.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers within the United States at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747), fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Iran is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor

Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor

Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Drivers all over Iran tend to ignore traffic lights, traffic signs and lane markers. Urban streets are not well lit. It is therefore particularly dangerous to drive at night. Sidewalks in urban areas only exist on main roads and are usually obstructed by parked cars. In the residential areas, few sidewalks exist. Drivers almost never yield to pedestrians at crosswalks. For additional general information about road safety, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers at present, or economic authority to operate such service, between the U.S. and Iran, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Iran's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards. For further information, travelers may contact the U.S. Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA Internet website at http://www.intl.faa.gov.

Passport Seizures/Exit Bans: The Iranian Government has seized the passports and blocked the departure of foreigners involved in commercial disputes.

Customs Regulations: Contact the Iranian Interests Section in Washington, DC for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Iranian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Fines, public floggings, and long prison terms are common. Former Muslims who have converted to other religions, as well as persons who encourage Muslims to convert, are subject to arrest and possible execution. Drinking, possession of alcoholic beverages and drugs as well as flirting or having sexual contact outside of marriage are considered to be crimes. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Iran are strict and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Iran executes many people each year on drug-related charges.

U.S. citizens in Iran who violate Iranian laws, including laws which are unfamiliar to westerners (such as those regarding the proper wearing of apparel), may face severe penalties.

The Iranian Government reportedly has the names of all individuals who filed claims against Iran at the Iran-U.S. claims tribunal at The Hague pursuant to the 1981 Algerian Accords. In addition, the Iranian Government reportedly has compiled a list of the claimants who were awarded compensation in the Iran Claims Program administered by the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission. The Iranian government is allegedly targeting award-holders who travel to Iran. It is reported that upon some claimants' entry into Iran, Iranian authorities question them as to the status of payment of their respective awards with a view to recouping the award money. It is also reported that the Iranian Government has threatened to prevent U.S. claimants who visit Iran from departing the country until they make arrangements to pay part or all of their award.

Consular Access: U.S. citizens who are not dual nationals of Iran are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship are readily available. Under Iranian law, dual U.S./Iranian nationals are considered Iranian citizens, and Iranian authorities may deny them access to the U.S. Interests Section in Tehran. See also earlier section on Dual Nationality.

U.S. Government Economic Sanctions: Except for carpets and foodstuffs, the importation of Iranian-origin goods or services into the United States has been prohibited since October 19, 1987. The Office of Foreign Assets Control, Department of Treasury, provides guidance to the public on the interpretation of the current economic sanctions. For additional information, consult the Licensing Division, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), U.S. Department of Treasury, phone 202-622-2480 or check the OFAC home page on the Internet at http://www.treas.gov/ofac or via OFAC's info-by fax at 202-622-0077. For information regarding banking compliance, contact OFAC's Compliance Programs Division at 202-622-2490.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone the Overseas Citizens Services call center at 1-888-407-4747. The OCS call center can answer general inquiries regarding international adoptions and abductions and will forward calls to the appropriate country officer in the Bureau of Consular Affairs. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/U.S. Interests Section Location: There is no U.S. Embassy or Consulate in Iran. The Embassy of Switzerland serves as the protecting power of U.S. interests in Iran. The U.S. Interests Section at the Swiss Embassy is located at Africa Avenue, West Farzan Street, no. 59, Tehran. The local telephone numbers are 021-878-2964 and 021-879-2364, fax 021-877-3265, E-mail: [email protected]. The workweek is Sunday through Thursday. Public service hours are 8:00 am – 12:00 noon. The Interests Section does not issue U.S. visas or accept visa applications. The limited consular services provided to U.S. citizens in Tehran, Iran include:

1. registering U.S. citizens;
2. answering inquiries concerning the welfare and whereabouts of U.S. citizens in Iran:
3. rendering assistance in times of distress or physical danger;
4. providing U.S. citizens with passport and Social Security card applications and other citizenship forms for approval at the U.S. Embassy in Bern, Switzerland;
5. performing notary services on the basis of accommodation; and
6. taking provisional custody of the personal effects of deceased U.S. citizens.

International Parental Child Abduction

The information below has been edited from the report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, American Citizen Services. For more information, please read the Guarding Against International Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at travel.state.gov

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign counsel.

General Information: The United States severed diplomatic and consular relations with the Government of Iran on April 7, 1980 as a result of the events surrounding the seizure of our Embassy in Tehran, Iran on November 4, 1979. In April of 1980, the United States Government formally asked the Swiss Government if it would assume diplomatic and consular representation of the United States in Iran. The Swiss agreed to perform specific consular and administrative functions on behalf of the U.S. Government.

One of their responsibilities is to provide consular services to children who have been taken by one parent to Iran without the other parent's knowledge or consent. In this regard, Swiss officials are permitted to ascertain the child's welfare, process applications for U.S. passports and to inform appropriate officials if there are allegations of child abuse. However, the Iranian government has placed strict limits on the ability of Swiss diplomats to intervene in such cases because they do not recognize the concept of dual nationality and therefore, when one parent is an Iranian citizen, consider the children involved to be Iranian citizens only.

Swiss diplomats in Iran do not have the authority to take custody of and return a child to the United States, just as foreign diplomats in the U.S. cannot remove children from this country. Such an action would be considered kidnapping under local law.

If you are concerned about a potential abduction, one of the first steps you should take is to notify the Department's Office of Legal Assistance and Citizenship Appeals. That office, which can be reached on (202) 326-6178, can block the issuance of a U.S. passport in your child's name upon submission of a court order giving you sole custody or prohibiting the child's departure from the U.S. without permission of the court. That office can also tell you whether your spouse has already applied for and obtained a passport for your child. However, if a passport has already been issued for the child, that office cannot revoke the passport or prevent its use.

If the child's father is an Iranian citizen, the child is considered an Iranian citizen under Iranian law and could travel abroad on an Iranian passport. There is nothing the Department of State can do to prevent the issuance of an Iranian passport by the Iranian Interests Section of the Embassy of Algeria.

You may wish to notify the Iranian Interests Section that you would object to your child receiving a passport without your consent. At that time, you could ask whether they have already issued a passport for the child. The address and the telephone number of the Iranian Interests Section of the Embassy of Alg eri a are: 2209 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington D.C. 20007; (202) 965-4999. Unfortunately, it has been our experience that a parent encounters little or no difficulty obtaining travel documentation from the Interests Section for a dual U.S.-Iranian citizen child, despite the existence of a U.S. court order barring departure without the court's consent.

As you may already know, a custody decree issued by a court in the United States has no force or effect in a foreign country. When a child is abducted by a parent, the deprived parent must usually initiate legal proceedings in the foreign country to regain custody of the child or to enforce visitation rights. However, the difficulties in recovering a child from an Islamic country without the full support and consent of the father can be insurmountable.

It is the Department's understanding that in Iran, all matters concerning family law are governed by the religious courts. While you would be free to seek legal custody through the Iranian religious courts, you should be aware that Islamic courts rarely, if ever, grant custody of children to a parent who will not raise them as Muslims, does not plan to remain in Iran or has remarried. Islamic courts attach great importance to having children reside near their father so that he can visit frequently and oversee their upbringing. Even if the mother is granted custody, (The children would still need his permission to leave the country).

Currently, the only treaties which have any application to abductions of children from the United States are the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction and the extradition treaties which the United States has with individual countries. Iran is not a party to the Hague Convention, and since the U.S. and Iran do not maintain diplomatic relations, there is no bilateral treaty in effect which would cover parental child abduction.

The U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Act was recently reformed by adding a Section which addressed the issue of child abduction. Under its provisions, which became effective June 1, 1991, a left-behind parent can, upon presentation of a custody decree, ask the Department of State to exclude an international child abductor from the United States. If you have further questions about this procedure or other aspects of child abduction, please contact the Office of Children's Issues at 1-888-407-4747.

Travel Warning
May 12, 2003

The Department of State warns U.S. citizens to consider carefully the risks of travel to Iran. This supersedes the Travel Warning for Iran of January 30, 2002, to update information about the security situation in Iran.

Tensions generated by the current situation in Iraq have increased the potential threat to U.S. citizens and interests abroad posed by those who oppose U.S. policy. Some elements of the Iranian government and population remain hostile to the U.S. Some areas of the country, including the Baluchistan border area near Pakistan and Afghanistan generally, are not safe for tourism. There were several bombings in January 2003 in the vicinity of Zahedan, the capital of the Sistanva Baluchistan province. The Kurdish northwest of the country and areas near the Iraqi border are not considered safe either.

Large-scale demonstrations have taken place in various regions throughout Iran over the past several years as a result of a sometimes-volatile political climate. U.S. citizens who go to Iran should exercise caution.

The U.S. government does not currently have diplomatic or consular relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran and therefore cannot provide protection or routine consular services to American citizens in Iran. The Swiss government, acting through its Embassy in Tehran, serves as protecting power for U.S. interests in Iran. Neither U.S. passports nor visas to the United States are issued in Tehran. The Iranian Government does not recognize dual citizenship and generally does not permit the Swiss to provide protective services for U.S. citizens who are also Iranian nationals. In addition, U.S. citizens of Iranian origin who are considered by Iran to be Iranian citizens have been detained and harassed by Iranian authorities. Former Muslims who have converted to other religions, as well as persons who encourage Muslims to convert, are subject to arrest and possible execution.

Updated information on travel and security in Iran may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 with in the United States and from overseas, 1-317-472-2328. For further general information about Iran, please consult the Department of State' slatest Consular Information Sheet on Iran and the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, both of which may be found on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov.