Poles

LOCATION: Poland
POPULATION: 38.2 million
LANGUAGE: Polish
RELIGION: Roman Catholicism (94%)

INTRODUCTION

In ad 966, under the reign of Duke Mieszko, the Poles embraced Christianity and formed their first state. During the first seven centuries of its history, Poland steadily expanded to become one of Europe's largest countries. After union with Lithuania in the 14th century, it was the center of a multiethnic commonwealth. The 16th and 17th centuries are considered the Golden Age of Polish history, when the nation pushed eastward to take over its Slavic neighbors, dreaming of a kingdom that stretched from the Baltic to the Black Sea. By the end of the 18th century, neighboring countries destroyed Poland, and its territories were divided among the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian empires in three successive partitions—1795 marked the disappearance of Poland as a political entity for more than a century. Although separated politically, the Poles held fast to their cultural unity and were able to preserve their national identity without the framework of a nation-state.

Reunited and restored to independence after World War I, the country was able to sustain a parliamentary democracy for only a few years before Marshal Józef Pi?sudski, a figure of heroic proportions in modern Polish history, seized power in 1926 and introduced authoritarian rule. Overwhelmed by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1939, Poland entered into the darkest period of its long history, suffering the deaths of more than six million of its population during World War II.

After the war, Poland's fate was determined by the victorious Allies. Its borders were shifted westward and the Soviet Union transformed Poland into a satellite state, the Polish People's Republic, founded in 1948. Although they were forcibly integrated into the Communist system, the Poles retained a spirit of independence, strengthened by their deep-rooted ties to Roman Catholicism. Membership in the Warsaw Pact did not mean that all aspects of the Soviet system were implemented in Poland. Agriculture, for instance, was never collectivized; instead, all farms were small. Protests against economic conditions and against violations of human rights were mounted in the late 1970s by a coalition uniting workers and peasants, the intelligentsia, and the church.

In 1980 and 1981 the independent trade union movement Solidarno?? (Solidarity), under the leadership of Lech Wa??sa, demanded recognition as an organization operating outside the control of the state or Communist party. In December 1981, however, Solidarity was disbanded, and its leaders were arrested. Martial rule was imposed by the prime minister and first secretary of the Communist Party, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, who assumed virtual dictatorial power as the head of a military junta. Personal freedoms were drastically curtailed, universities were closed, activities of all organizations (including Solidarity) were suspended, and over 5,000 activists, among them Wa??sa, were interned. In 1983 Wa??sa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Renewed labor unrest in 1988 prompted Jaruzelski to begin negotiations with the outlawed Solidarity movement, which resulted in far-reaching reforms of the political system. In the June 1989 elections, Solidarity won the majority and formed a coalition government with the Communists. In 1990 Solidarity leader Lech Wa??sa was elected president. The new government's radical plans to transform Poland's centrally planned economy into a free-enterprise economy —collectively known as "shock therapy"—quickly led to sharp price increases and high unemployment, creating discontent among the population and dissension within the government. Four different prime ministers held office in 1992 and 1993, and former Communists made impressive gains in the 1993 parliamentary elections. The government continued the transition to a free-market economy but at a slower pace. There are now multiple parties. More recently, conservative parties have regained the upper hand. Never apathetic, many Poles are opposed to siting U.S. missile defenses on their territory and are actively protesting rising food prices.

As early as 1989, Poland signed an agreement on trade and trade cooperation with the then European Community. On 1 May 2004 Poland became a member of the European Union. The currency is still the z?oty, which is keeping up its value relative to the euro and thus gaining on the dollar. By 2012, however, Poland is slated to adopt the euro.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Poland is bordered on the east and northeast by Ukraine and Belarus, on the northeast by Lithuania and Russia, on the south by the Czech Republic and Slovakia, on the west by Germany, and on the northwest by the Baltic Sea. The capital city is Warsaw.

Poland consists primarily of lowlands belonging to the North European Plain. The climate is transitional between maritime and continental, with cold, snowy winters and warm summers. There are mountains in the south. Forests occupy more than one-fourth of the total land area.

Poland's population of 38.2 million is highly homogenous, both ethnically and linguistically, although the country does have minority groups, including Ukrainians, Germans, Belarusians, and Roma.

LANGUAGE

Polish is a Slavic language that uses the Roman alphabet but has a number of extra characters and diacritical marks (?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ó). It also uses digraphs to express certain sounds; much as English uses the letter h to modify preceding consonants, Polish uses the letter z to do something similar in the combinations cz, rz, and sz. Spelling is a nearly-reliable guide to pronunciation, with the stress usually on the second-to-last syllable of a word.

Some common everyday words are: tak (yes), nie (no), jak (how), dobrze (OK), dzie? dobry (good day), cze?? (hello), and prosz? (please).

FOLKLORE

There are many legends associated with Easter and Christmas, which are very important holidays in Poland. For example, a legend of the Christmas spiders tells of when Jesus was a little boy and came upon a poor farmhouse. He heard a family of spiders crying because there was not enough money to buy decorations for the Christmas tree. The spiders let him in, and he blessed the tree. Within minutes it was decorated in silver and gold webs. This is why tinsel is used to decorate Christmas trees to this day.

A limestone cavern in the bluffs below the Wawel Castle in Cracow inspired the many legends of the Wawel Dragon. The dragon, it is said, was ravaging the countryside and, in particular, devouring young girls. Many knights failed to overcome it. Finally, a cobbler's apprentice stuffed a lamb with sulfur and laid it before the entrance to the dragon's cave. The dragon swallowed the lamb, began to burn inside, dashed down to the Vistula, drank half the river, and burst. The young hero went on to marry the king's daughter and founded the city of Cracow.

RELIGION

The Poles are a deeply religious people. Roman Catholicism is the religion of some 94% of Poles, and it exerts an important influence on many aspects of Polish life. Since the introduction of the Catholic Church in ad 966, it has remained a pillar of strength in Poland. The Polish church had a rather distant relationship with Rome until 1978, when a Pole, Cardinal Karol Wojty?a, was chosen to become Pope John Paul II, the first Polish person to be so honored. Poland has 2,500 convents with 28,000 nuns and over 500 monasteries. The Catholic university in Lublin and the Academy of Catholic Theology in Warsaw are the leading church-controlled institutions. Cz?stochowa, with its Black Madonna, is one of the most important pilgrim-age centers in Europe. Other Christian denominations besides Catholicism include Russian Orthodox, the Uniate faith, which combines aspects of Catholicism and Orthodoxy, and a variety of Protestant churches. There are a few Jews left from a community that was large before the Holocaust.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

There is a famous Polish saying, "Every day is good for celebration," and this is certainly true in Polish culture.

Important public holidays in Poland include New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter, All Saints Day (November 1), Corpus Christi Day, and Worker's Day (May 1). Once a constant reminder of Communist power, Worker's Day is now a commemoration of solidarity's triumph over communism. Constitution Day (May 3) and Independence Day (November 11) are also important holidays in Poland.

Polish Catholics have an interesting annual tradition of pledging their vows to the Blessed Virgin Mary. The Mother of God, or Bogurodzica, is the patron of the Polish Crown. People usually come to Cz?stochowa, to the shrine of the Black Madonna, to renew their vows to her. The church calendar is based on two cycles, which culminate in the two biggest religious celebrations: Christmas (Bo?e Narodzenie) and Easter (Wielkanoc). There are also many saints' feast days, which are especially numerous for the Virgin Mary.

St. John's Eve, a few days after the summer solstice, is one of the most popular holidays. Originally a pagan celebration designed to drive out devils, it is now celebrated with great bonfires, around which young people dance and over which boys try to leap, carrying buckets of water with which to douse the girls.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Occasions such as baptism, first communion, and marriage are cause for festive celebrations.

A Polish wedding always promises a good time. Some traditional rituals associated with a Polish wedding included long blessings by the parents before the actual ceremony and greenery on the bride's headpiece symbolizing her virginity. Large weddings remain mainly in the countryside. Old customs are not always practiced today, and urban Poles have adopted Western-style wedding traditions, with generally smaller, simpler weddings. Wedding anniversaries are very special among Polish couples. The tenth wedding anniversary is the occasion for a major celebration.

Lively wakes are held after Polish funerals, with toasts and tributes to the deceased. In the past, Poles wore black for a year following the death of a family member; today, a black arm-band is worn instead.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Poles greet each other by shaking hands. Men and women often shake hands, but usually the man waits until the woman has extended her hand first. In general, Poles are more conservative and formal than Westerners, but they are known for their hospitality. When responding to a dinner invitation, it is considered polite to bring a bouquet of flowers for the lady of the house.

In any sort of business, tourist, or social situation outside the family, titles (i.e. Pan 'Mr.', Pani 'Mrs., Ms.', PanDoktor 'Dr.') and occupational titles are used in greetings and in reference to others.

Poles often gesticulate enthusiastically when they talk. In rural areas, it is common to see women crossing themselves as a sign of faith when they come to a crossroads. The Polish good luck gesture (comparable to crossing one's fingers in the U.S.) is a thumb tucked into the palm of one's hand and covered with the other four fingers.

Common Polish civilities include przepraszam (excuse me), Jest pan/pani bardzo uprzejmy/uprzejma (Sir/madam you are very kind), and dzi?kuj? (thank you).

LIVING CONDITIONS

The average life expectancy for Poles is 75.3 years, and the infant mortality rate is 6.0 per 1,000 live births. Government-funded medical care is no longer available to all Poles. Reforms in 1999–2000 made the system more complex, with 17 insurance funds, and left some people uninsured. Facilities are poor by OECD standards, while spending on medical care is low for an OECD country but rising fast. The availability of modern diagnostic equipment like MRIs and CTs has been growing rapidly. There is one doctor for every 400 patients and one hospital bed for every 179 people. Private medical care is available but very expensive. People express great dissatisfaction with the reforms. The number of smokers has fallen, although it is still somewhat higher than in comparable countries. Obesity has risen, though not to the level of other OECD countries. Alcoholism is a major health problem in Poland.

Poland faces a serious housing shortage, and young couples often live with one or the other set of parents for the first years after they marry. The shift to a market economy led to slowed housing construction, although the pace has picked up in recent years. Housing may be in short supply, but rents are only a small part of living expenditures, since subsidies have not been altogether abolished. Still, the 1991–92 reforms brought a steep rise in housing costs for most families. In urban areas, large tracts of apartment buildings are the norm, but one-family homes are becoming fashionable. In the villages, masonry structures with fireproof roofs have replaced the traditional wooden houses with thatched roofs.

Nearly half of all households own cars, and car ownership has nearly doubled in a decade and is on the rise. The classic Polish Fiat has not been produced since 2000. Poles are now buying Toyotas and many other world brands. To cope with a scarcity of parking spaces, many Poles park half-on-half-off the sidewalk. Hitchhiking used to be not only legal but actually encouraged in Poland through coupons that hikers could buy and give to drivers. It is still popular; there are now internet ride boards. Warsaw has a subway. Most cities have effi-cient bus and streetcar systems, and there are air and rail links to major cities.

While refrigerators are nearly universal, dishwashers are rare. Virtually every home has a television set and, by 2006, 73% had mobile phones.

FAMILY LIFE

Families in this predominantly urban country typically (88%) have one child; a few have two children; even among rural families it is rare for a couple to have more than two children. Traditionally, the Polish father is a stern authority figure, with the mother mediating between him and the children. The nuclear family is the norm, although aged parents or unmarried brothers and sisters may be part of the household. Single-parent households are becoming more common. In most families, both parents work, and children assume considerable responsibility for themselves at an early age, helping cook, clean, and care for younger siblings. However, grandparents also play a significant role in childrearing. Mother's Day is a big occasion for Polish children, who often put on performances for their mothers at school.

CLOTHING

Poles wear modern Western-style clothing and generally dress elegantly, but conservatively. Clothing is very expensive, so wardrobes tend to be small, and it is still common to wear handmade clothing. Young people favor jeans and sweatshirts with American slogans or logos. Jeans are also popular among academics and people in the arts. In rural areas, older women can still be seen wearing full skirts, thick stockings, and head scarves.

Traditional costumes are reserved for Sundays or special occasions in the villages. Costumes vary considerably in the different regions, but some features are typical everywhere. A woman's costume has a blouse, a full skirt (often brightly striped), an apron, and perhaps a vest or jacket. Unmarried women may wear elaborate and varied headdresses. Men too may wear highly decorated headdresses. Pants vary regionally from wide in the north to narrow in the south and are tucked into boots. The southern mountaineers wear moccasins.

Polish women are very fond of amber from the Baltic and coral beads, which are believed to bring many healthy children.

FOOD

Meat is integral to Polish cuisine. Beef, pork, ham, and sausage make up many national dishes, such as bigos (sauerkraut with spicy meat and mushrooms), flaki (tripe boiled or fried), golonka (pig's leg), and pierogi (dough filled with cheese, meat, or fruit). Common fish include pike, carp, cod, crayfish, and herring. The Poles are known for their thick, hearty soups. Soups such as borsch (beet soup), botwinka, ch?odnik or krupnik are preludes to Polish main courses. Sour cream and bacon bits are condiments necessary for almost every dish. Typical desserts include stewed fruit, fruit dumplings, pancakes with fruit or cheese, and jam donuts called p?czki.

Poland has several varieties of vodka—a favorite drink that Poland claims to have discovered. Local bottled beers are popular as well as soft drinks made of strawberry and apple. Pepsi and Coke are everywhere, and tea, especially, is consumed with everything.

EDUCATION

Poland has an over 99% adult literacy rate and a near-universal attendance level in its schools. In 1773 a national education commission was established. The system this commission set up lasted for over 200 years, although in periods of partition and occupation it operated underground. The system was reformed in 1999. Compulsory primary school starts at age six or seven and lasts six years, followed by three years of compulsory lower secondary school, called gimnazjum. For upper secondary school there are choices: three years of liceum or four years of technikum both ending in an equivalent examination that is the key to entering higher education, or else two or three years of vocational technical school. In addition to the traditional focus on Polish history and culture, today there is a strong emphasis on foreign languages and computer skills. Rural schools, however, are having a hard time attracting qualified teachers. Students who have good grades or pass an entrance exam may attend one of Poland's 18 universities or many more technical institutes or other types of postsecondary institution. Higher education is in theory free, but there are not enough scholarships to go around. Poland has 466 institutions of higher education. The Jagiellonian University in Cracow, founded in 1364, is the second-oldest university in Central Europe.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

In the 19th century when Poland was split among three empires, art, literature, and theater were media through which Polish identity and protest against the state were voiced. Under Nazi Germany (1939–45), clandestine literature flourished and continued during Communist control, joined by theater and film as means of free expression of ideas. Polish movie posters became known internationally as a separate branch of graphic art.

Music is well represented in Poland. Such greats as composers Frederic Chopin and Witold Lutos?awski, and pianists Ignacy Jan Paderewski and Artur Rubinstein are known throughout the world.

Poland has over 20 symphony orchestras; even small cities have their own. Conservatories and music high schools make training for the talented publicly available. There are now also private music schools. In Warsaw, nightly operas, ballets, chamber concerts, and recitals are a popular recreational activity. Warsaw is also the home of the Jazz Jamboree festival— the oldest and biggest jazz show in Eastern Europe.

Village musicians often play at weddings and festivals. Their sound is a combination of the fiddle, wooden flutes, accordion, and a single-reed bagpipe.

The polka, known around the world, is not a real Polish folk dance, but the polonaise and mazurka are distinctively Polish.

Writers are considered important people in Poland. Adam Mickiewicz, a 19th-century poet, is the national bard. Many streets and squares are named after him. The following Polish-born writers have won Nobel Prizes for literature: Henryk Sienkiewicz for Quo Vadis, a story about the times of Roman emperor Nero; W?adys?aw Reymont for Ch?opi (The Peasants), an epic novel of Poland; and Czes?aw Mi?osz and Wis?awa Szymborska for their poetry. Twentieth-century poets, such as Julian Przybos and Julian Tuwim, have celebrated Polish uprisings and written both experimental verse and poetry with political messages.

The first Pole to win a Nobel Prize (1903 and again in 1911) was Maria Sk?odowska (Madame Curie), who with her French husband studied radioactive elements. Poland was a world center in mathematics and logic before World War II. Jan ?ukasiewicz found a way to write all logical formulas without using parentheses; it is now called "Polish notation" in his honor.

WORK

Poland has a long history as an industrial nation, beginning in the 19th century and intensively developed in the Communist period.

By 2004 most Polish industry was in private, overwhelmingly Polish hands. Manufacturing predominates with metal processing in first place, followed by clothing and fur, furniture, and other wood processing. In the past 15 years, the service sector has grown greatly. Industry has become a smaller part of the total economic output but, nevertheless, has been modernized and has grown at a far higher rate than in the rest of Europe. Electrical and machine products are important exports. Manufacturing accounts for 20% of employees, while agriculture has 16%.

There are large deposits of coal, including hard coal and lignite, which together provide most of the country's electricity. Copper and salt are also extracted.

Poland has been attracting foreign investment by offering a highly-skilled workforce at relatively low wages for Europe. Nevertheless, unemployment remains high at nearly 15%, and many Poles are working abroad, notably in Ireland.

Close to 4 million Poles belong to unions including a union of small farmers and farm workers that has been known to conduct militant protests.

SPORTS

For many years a big emphasis was placed on sports activities in Polish schools. Today, there is less funding for equipment, and parents often cannot afford to pay membership fees at private sports clubs.

Some popular sports include swimming, gymnastics, hockey, volleyball, and soccer. Streetball, similar to basketball, is played by children in the parks. On some Saturday mornings, part of a street may be closed off for a soccer game. Soccer, which is played at every school, is also the biggest spectator sport. Skiing is Poland's most popular winter sport. The beautiful ski resort of Zakopane (which means "a place buried in the ground") is the most popular ski getaway for Poles. "When life gets unbearable, there is always Zakopane," is a Polish saying.

Poles have taken new interest in Formula One automobile racing now that there is a Polish driver, Robert Kubica, in world competition. With cars ever more available, Poles have also become involved in typically illegal drag racing. The city of ?ód? has taken this on by occasionally closing streets for legal drag racing.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Popular family activities include traveling, watching TV, listening to Polish, European, and American pop music, and in recent years shopping. Poland's cities are famous for theater and cinemas, opera houses, jazz and classical concerts, and discos. Outdoor activities include hiking, motorcycle racing, horseback riding, and hunting. Poland's spas are also popular leisure-time venues. The largest is Ciechocinek.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Among folk art specialties from particular regions are paintings on glass by the Zakopane mountain folk; red sequined Cracow folk costumes; the black pottery of Kielce; lacework from Koniaków; rainbow-colored cloth from ?owicz; and paper cutouts from Kurpie. The small village of Zalipie is famous for the flower paintings on its wooden houses, wells, wagons, and chairs.

Highly decorated Easter eggs are a folk art that is still used in holiday celebrations. So are Christmas tree decorations, as well as traditional Christmas carols.

In 1948 the government initiated a company called Cepelia to buy Polish folk arts and crafts and sell both small souvenir items and more valuable goods in local stores and internationally. The selection is unusually tasteful, and the project has helped to keep folk art viable in a changing economy. The company continues to this day, making Polish craft items available to Poles, tourists, and on the world market.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Social tensions are caused by the disparity in income between the poor and the wealthy, exacerbated by the fact that under the Communist regime wealth was associated with corruption. Inequality increased sharply between 1990 and 1993; since then the class lines have hardened. Other problems include housing shortages and inadequacies in the health care system.

Lustration is a Polish term for vetting or background checking. Specifically it means making former Communist officials, and anyone who collaborated with the Communist-era secret police, ineligible for responsible jobs in government, education, and media. How far such people should be kept out of public life continues to be highly controversial, even two decades after the end of communism. The surviving secret police files can contain false information accusing someone of having been an agent. Courts have declared several lustration laws unconstitutional.

While there are few speakers of minority languages in Poland, there are also few protections for their rights. Roma in particular face discrimination and violence.

A new social problem has been dubbed "Euro-orphanhood." Now that Poland is part of the European Union, Poles can leave freely to take work in other European countries. Some leave spouses and children behind; such marriages may be heading for divorce. In some cases children are left behind with no parents, and grandparents, siblings or neighbors care for them.

GENDER ISSUES

The advent of political democracy in Poland in 1989 actually reduced the rights of women. Previously, abortion had been readily available. With the influence of the Roman Catholic Church now dominant, an extremely restrictive law against abortion passed in 1993. In 1996 it was liberalized somewhat, then made somewhat more restrictive again in 1997. The present law allows abortion when the life or health of the woman is threatened, when the embryo is seriously and irreversibly damaged or incurably ill, or when the pregnancy is the result of an illegal act. However, practice has turned out to be more restrictive than the law, and many women whose pregnancies met the legal criteria have still been unable to get legal abortions. Most turn to illegal ones or, if they can afford it, go abroad. This is exacerbated by a complete lack of sex education and by expensive contraceptives.

In addition, the United Nations Human Rights Committee noted in 2004 that women are paid less than men for their work and rarely promoted to senior positions. There is now little in the way of subsidized child care to help women who work. Domestic violence is another problem, with little training of police and inadequate shelter resources.

The Polish government has begun to address such issues by appointing the Government Plenipotentiary on the Equal Status of Women and Men.

The UN report also noted lack of protection from discrimination based on sexual orientation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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—revised by T. Alt and W. Browne