Hawaiians

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Hawaiians

PRONUNCIATION: ha-WHY-uhns
LOCATION: United States (primarily in the Hawaiian Islands)
POPULATION: 813,415 (2006 est. includes those who claim mixed heritage of one or more races)
LANGUAGE: English
RELIGION: Christianity (Roman Catholic); Buddhism
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: Polynesians; Micronesians; Melanesians

INTRODUCTION

The Hawaiian Islands are located about 2,000 miles southwest of San Francisco in the Pacific Ocean. They are part of the larger Polynesian island chain. This island group, known collectively as Hawaii, became the 50th state of the United States in 1959. The first Europeans to visit the islands were probably Captain James Cook, a British naval officer, and his crews aboard two ships, the Resolution and the Discovery, which visited the islands in 1778. Within 40 years the native population was substantially reduced by the unfamiliar disease strains that the British brought with them to the islands. Eventually, European and American fur traders and whalers began using the conveniently situated islands as a provisions stations and missionaries also arrived to win converts to Christianity. Foreigners were granted the right to purchase property in 1840 and by the mid-19th century the United States had begun large-scale sugar farming, eventually bringing in thousands of European and Asian contract workers, thus forever changing the ethnic makeup of the islands. In 1893 a group of plantation owners, with U.S. military aid, overthrew the reigning monarch, Queen Liliuokalani. In 1898 the Hawaiian Islands were annexed and made a territory of the United States.

In the 20th century, Hawaii became a center of American military power in the Pacific. America's involvement in World War II began when a surprise Japanese air attack destroyed United States military installations in and around Pearl Harbor, an inlet near Honolulu, Hawaii's capital, on 7 December 1941. Since Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959, defense has continued to play an important role in its economy, as has tourism. Descendants of the Asians who came to the islands as plantation workers have, on the whole, fared better than the Native Hawaiians, wielding both economic and political power while the Native Hawaiians became increasingly alienated and impoverished. Since the mid-1970s activists have worked to promote the ethnic, cultural, and economic interests of native Hawaiians, in a movement analogous to that of the Native Americans and Alaskan Natives on the U.S. mainland.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The state of Hawaii is made up of about 130 islands, both large and small. Only seven of the islands are regularly inhabited. Most of the islands were created by volcanic action. The highest point in Hawaii is Mauna Kea, an apparently extinct volcano on the island of Hawaii, which rises to a height of 4,205 m (13,796 ft).

Of the seven main islands, Hawaii is the largest. It was formed by five volcanoes, two of which—Kilauea and Mauna Loa—are still active. The island of Maui is made up of two vol- canic complexes joined by a low-lying strip of land. Both of Maui's volcanoes are dormant today, and one of them, Hale-akala, has one of the world's largest extinct volcanic craters. Lanai is a hilly island that rises to a height of 1,027 m (3,369 ft) atop a long-extinct volcano. The island of Molokai is made up of three distinct regions, each formed by a separate volcano. Oahu, the most-populated island, is made up of two rugged mountain ranges, the Waianae Mountains in the west and the Koolau Range in the east. Pearl Harbor, one of the best natural harbors of the Pacific Ocean, is located on Oahu's south coast. Diamond Head and Punchbowl, remnants of extinct volcanoes, are famous landmarks found not far from the city of Honolulu. The island of Kauai is characterized by high precipitation and an abundance of lush vegetation. Kauai has many streams, some of which have worn deep canyons into the rock. Niihau is a private island. Its owners encourage the preservation of traditional Hawaiian culture and discourage outsiders from visiting the island. Hawaii's largest cities are Hilo, which is located on the island of Hawaii, and Honolulu, Kailua, Aiea, Kaneohe, Pearl City, and Waipahu, all on the island of Oahu.

When Hawaii was annexed as a U.S. territory in 1898, many Native Hawaiians, particularly those of the royal bloodline, lost the ownership rights over large portions of self-governed lands. Owners and community members alike lobbied the U.S. Congress for land rights, but the interests of the prosperous sugar plantation owners were considered of greater importance. In 1921 Congress passed the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act to set aside 203,500 acres of Hawaiian land for Native Hawaiians. In 2006 the Department of Hawaiian Homelands administered 201,660 acres of these lands that were set apart exclusively for the benefit of Native Hawaiians. About 58% of these homelands are located on the island of Hawaii. As of 2006 only about 42% of the total homeland area was in use.

At the 2000 U.S. Census, there were 140,652 people who claimed Native Hawaiian as their single race. However, a total of 874,414 listed themselves as Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders as a combination of one or more races. According to 2006 estimates, there were 148,598 people claiming Native Hawaiian as their single race and 813,474 listed Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders as a combination of one or more races. About 60% of all Native Hawaiians live in the state of Hawaii. California has the next largest number of Native Hawaiians (about 20,350 in 2006), followed by Washington (5,000 in 2006).

LANGUAGE

The official language of the Hawaiian Islands is English, which is spoken at home by about 76% of the population. Few people speak the original Polynesian-based Hawaiian language. There are, however, a number of academic and cultural organizations at work to preserve the language for future generations. Most of the native population speaks pidgin, a local creole that incorporates English, Hawaiian, and other Asian and Pacific languages. Spoken with a rising inflection, pidgin is especially popular among young people and has a distinctive vocabulary and syntax of its own. Other languages spoken in Hawaii include Japanese, Chinese, and Tagalog.

COMMON HAWAIIAN TERMS:
aloha: a common greeting, used for both hello and goodbye. Also means affection, romantic love, or good wishes
hula: a popular native Hawaiian dance
kahuna: priest or shaman
kane: man (also husband or boyfriend)
lanai: porch
keiki: child, children
lei: garland of flowers or vines
luau: traditional Hawaiian feast
malihini: newcomer or "tenderfoot"
mauna: mountain
COMMON PIDGIN TERMS:
bimbye: eventually ("by and by")
brah: brother (equivalent of "bro" in the United States)
cockaroach: to steal, equivalent to "rip off "
da'kine: all-purpose expression, similar to "whatever" or "you know"
hu hu: angry
ono: number one; i.e., the best
pau hana: quitting time (end of the work day)

FOLKLORE

Like all Polynesian peoples, the original Hawaiians believed that their ancestors came from a mythical homeland near Tahiti, called Hawaiki. Many of the Native Hawaiian deities were associated with animals and nature. The original inhabitants of Hawaii offered human sacrifices to the active volcano, Pele, in an attempt to pacify the goddess known by the same name, thus preventing violent and disastrous eruptions. Another popular figure was Kamapuaa, who was half man and half hog. Polynesian mythology in general is a complex mix of stories about the creation of the earth and the relationships between the gods and people.

Traditionally, taboos called kapu (from which the word "taboo" is derived) were widely observed by the Hawaiian people. Typical kapu included a prohibition on letting one's shadow fall on the body of a king and a ban on men and women eating together.

RELIGION

The traditional Polynesian religion, which declined in the 19th century with the arrival of Christian missionaries on the islands, was animistic and based on a belief in numerous gods, half-gods, and spirits. Chiefs were believed to be descended from the gods and to have sacred powers called mana. One can still see evidence of pre-Christian religion throughout Hawaii in open-air temples called heiau. Most Hawaiians are now Christian, with a majority of those being Roman Catholic. Buddhists are the largest religious minority in the state.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Hawaiians celebrate all major Christian holidays as well as all national holidays celebrated in the United States. They also celebrate special festivals of their own, including Lei Day (May 1) and Aloha Week in late September, which is observed throughout the islands with luau (feasts), pageants, balls, and other festivities. Other festivals are unique to a particular island or locality.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Rituals marking major life events such as birth, marriage, and death are generally observed within the Christian religious tradition. Among the native Hawaiian population, the ceremony celebrating a birth was traditionally the most important rite of passage.

In ancient times, the bodies of the dead were placed in burial caves, and special care was taken to avoid having the enemies of deceased persons find and dishonor their remains after death.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Sharing possessions and giving gifts have traditionally been central to the Hawaiian way of life. If someone was in need, people always gave generously, safe in the knowledge that others would be there to help them in return. This generous attitude survives in the famous "spirit of aloha," a term that refers to the friendliness, generosity, and openness to strangers for which the Hawaiians are known. "Aloha" is also the universal greeting for "hello" and "goodbye." A popular slang greeting, equivalent to "What's up?" in the United States, is the pidgin phrase "Howzit brah?"

The traditional garland known as a lei is presented to people on any happy occasion, but especially upon arriving in or leaving Hawaii. A widespread practice in the workplace is the observance of the Hawaiian equivalent of the U.S. "casual day"—"Aloha Friday," marked by playful behavior and the wearing of bright colors and flowers.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Native Hawaiians face many of the same difficulties as other native groups within the United States. Native Hawaiians once lived in communities in which resources were shared and the management of resources was designated to a chief. After the annexation of Hawaii as a U.S. territory, most land ownership was transferred from native royalty to non-native individuals, leaving many Native Hawaiians displaced from their traditional homes. The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921 set aside 203,500 acres of homeland for Native Hawaiians, thus allowing the chance to obtain long-term land leases on property where they might continue to preserve a traditional lifestyle. However, eligibility was limited to those who could prove to be a descendent of not less than one-half of one of the races inhabiting the Hawaii islands before 1778. In the modern housing market, many Native Hawaiians, including those who are of mixed heritage, find themselves at an economic disadvantage in owning homes.

Native Hawaiians once had a system of health care that included holistic healing practices still around today, particularly those that combine mental and spiritual wellness with physical healing. As the foreign population grew, Western medical practices became more and more prevalent. However, many natives were suspicious of the new techniques and medicines. Today the primary barrier to adequate health care for the native population is low income. In 2003 only about 21% of all Native Hawaiians in the state had health insurance. The teenage pregnancy rate among Native Hawaiians was higher than that of other ethnic groups in the state and the number of unwed mothers was higher among Native Hawaiians as well. There has also been a higher number of infant deaths among Native Hawaiians than among other ethnic groups. The native population had higher instances of asthma and obesity than other ethnic groups within the state. About 25% of the native population smoked in 2003.

Papa Ola Lokahi, founded in 1988, is a not-for-profit consortium serving as the umbrella group for the Native Hawaiian Health Care Systems (NHHCS). Facilities within the NHHCS promote traditional healing practices with more modern techniques.

FAMILY LIFE

Traditional Hawaiian life centered on the extended family. Families were large and the extended family often lived under the same roof. All family members were expected to work together for the welfare of the ainga, or the whole family group. A child had many "mothers" and "fathers," and was never lonely. It was a common practice for grandmothers to adopt and raise children as their own. The children in traditional Hawaiian households were usually spoiled through overindulgence.

Marriages were traditionally arranged without consulting the couple. In most cases, such marriages were intended to strengthen ties between families or political bonds between tribes and clans. Land was usually owned by clans or extend- ed families and worked by individuals. Ownership changed mainly by inheritance or warfare. The roles of both women and men were clearly defined from an early age and children learned by observing their elders. The burden of providing for and protecting the family fell to the males, while females did the household chores and reared the children.

In modern society the centrality of family seems to have lost much of its significance among the native population. In 2004 the number of children born to unwed mothers was significantly higher among the Native Hawaiian population than that of other ethnic groups in the state.

CLOTHING

Modern Hawaiians wear Western-style clothing, but traditional garb can still be seen and, in fact, is often worn for the benefit of the tourists who flock to Hawaii each year. For men it includes a cloth skirt called a lava-lava, or sulu. Some women wear long, loose-fitting cotton garments called muumuus. Skirts are made of tapa cloth, made by stripping the inner bark from paper mulberry trees, soaking it, and then beating it with wooden clubs. Both men and women sometimes wear the familiar grass skirts which are identified with Hawaii in popular imagination.

The early Hawaiians often decorated their bodies with tattoos, a custom which has recently seen a resurgence of popularity among young people, not just in Hawaii, but all over the United States.

FOOD

Traditionally, the people of the Hawaiian Islands have depended largely on fish and native plants for food. Hawaiians catch crabs, lobsters, shrimp, and turtles in shallow water. Farther out to sea they catch bonito and tuna. On many islands they eat the fruit of breadfruit and pandanus trees and the meat of coconuts from the coconut palm. Traditional garden crops include sweet potatoes, taro (a plant with a starchy root), bananas, corn, pineapples, rice, and tomatoes. Some farmers also raise chickens and pigs.

A traditional way of preparing food is to cook it in a ground oven, a shallow pit lined with heated stones. The food is placed on the stones and covered with layers of leaves. The pit is then filled with earth to hold in the heat.

EDUCATION

The first formal schools in the Hawaiian Islands were established by Protestant missionaries from the United States in the early 19th century. In 1840 the Hawaiian king Kamehameha III established a public school system in the kingdom of Hawaii. Today the state school system is highly centralized, with one school board overseeing all public schools in the state. The system includes several charter schools. Elementary and secondary school enrollments have remained relatively stable, although a slight decline was evident in the 1980s. Hawaii's institutions of higher education include Chaminade University of Honolulu, Hawaii Loa College, Hawaii Pacific University, and the University of Hawaii system, which includes several community colleges located throughout the islands. In 2006 about 85% of the native population aged 25 years and older had obtained a high school diploma or higher level of education. Only about 12.6% had obtained a bachelor's degree or higher.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

The return of a loved one, the birth of a child, or the appointment of a new chief were always occasions for celebration in traditional Hawaiian culture. New songs were composed spontaneously to record the event, and dances were enacted to capture the spirit of the gathering. Most dances were performed either sitting or standing. The men's dances, which were vigorous and energetic, included slapping the body, stamping the feet, and twirling wooden clubs or spears in the air in mock battles. The women's dances, such as the hula, involved graceful head and body movements that illustrated the songs. Costumes varied according to the type of dance being performed, but were most often made of leaves and sweet-smelling flowers. Feathers, fine mats, grass skirts, and headdresses were worn for some dances. Traditional Hawaiian musical instruments included bamboo flutes, shell trumpets, panpipes, and slit drums.

A number of organizations seek to preserve and promote the native culture. These include the Hawaii State Foundation on Culture and the Arts and the Hawaii State Art Museum.

WORK

According to reports from the year 2000, only about 60% of the Native Hawaiians within the state (aged 16 years and older) were employed. Most of the native work force (about 71%) is employed in private sector wage and salaried jobs. Less than 5% are self-employed or own their own business. These native-owned businesses tend to be either one-person operations or have only a few employees, who are often family members. About 62% of Native Hawaiians in the state of Hawaii have household incomes under $50,000.

The people of Hawaii work at jobs that are similar to those of people in the mainland United States. In the cities they might be lawyers, doctors, or office workers. They may work in factories processing canned pineapples and pineapple juice; manufacturing stone, clay, metal or glass products; and making clothing. Some are engaged in shipbuilding.

Hawaiian farm workers specialize in sugarcane and pineapple production. Other crops include coffee, ornamental flowers and shrubs, papayas, bananas, avocados, taro, grain sorghum, macadamia nuts, alfalfa, beans, potatoes, and cabbage. Livestock farms produce beef cattle, milk and other dairy goods, hogs, chickens, and chicken eggs.

The tourist industry, which has grown rapidly in recent decades, is the leading source of employment for the people of Hawaii. Each year several million tourists visit the state.

SPORTS

Hawaiians enjoy all the spectator sports that are popular elsewhere in the United States, such as basketball, football, and baseball. They enjoy watching and participating in golf, hiking, cycling, and polo.

In Hawaii, however, water sports are the most popular. Hawaii is considered one of the best places in the world for surfing. Other popular water sports enjoyed by Hawaiians are sport fishing, boat racing, swimming, windsurfing, body-surfing, snorkeling, and scuba diving.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Hawaiians tend to head for the outdoors when they're in the mood for recreation. They enjoy water sports like surfing, scuba diving, snorkeling, and deep sea fishing, and they also like to camp out and hike through Hawaii's spectacular landscape.

Traditionally, islanders enjoyed gathering to celebrate occasions like births and marriages with feasting, dancing, and singing. No such celebration would be complete without kava, a drink made from the roots of the native kava plant. For young boys, favorite pastimes are wrestling, dart-throwing, spinning tops, playing marbles, and flying kites. Girls might practice juggling, play cat's cradle, or participate in a game of hopscotch.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Many Hawaiian islanders are skilled artists and craftsworkers. One important traditional craft is basketweaving. Using the leaves and fibers of native plants, such as palm and pandanus trees, craftspeople weave baskets, mats, and wall hangings, which they decorate with colorful designs. Others specialize in using native woods to carve masks, cooking utensils, and other objects. On a smaller scale, some Hawaiian artisans are skilled at making pottery.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Native Hawaiians face many of the same social problems as other native groups within the United States. Criminal activity is high among Native Hawaiians. In 2005 about 38% of the Hawaii state inmate population were Native Hawaiians. About 36% of all juvenile arrests involved Native Hawaiian youth. Larceny, theft, motor vehicle theft, burglary, and assault were the most common offenses among adult offenders. Burglary, assault, larceny, and marijuana drug use were the most common offenses among juveniles. Poverty is considered to be a primary contributing factor to many of the social problems faced by the native population.

Since the 1898 annexation of Hawaii as a U.S. territory, Native Hawaiians have faced several difficulties in maintaining their traditional lifestyle, with most challenges relating to their strained relationship with the U.S. government. The Hawaiian Organic Act of 1900 established U.S. government control of the islands and recognized Native Hawaiians as U.S. citizens; however, there was no provision made to recognize the native population as a distinct indigenous people. Through the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1921, Congress set aside over 200,000 acres to serve as homelands for the Native Hawaiians; however, the right to establish systems of self-governance, similar to that granted to Native American groups, was not part of the agreement. In 1993 the U.S. Congress issued a joint resolution (Public Law 103–150) that officially declared the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii an illegal action under both U.S. and international law. Many Native Hawaiians viewed this admission and apology as a major turning point in their efforts to reestablish some aspects of their traditional system of life and government.

In 2002 the state of Hawaii recognized the rights of Native Hawaiians to hunt, gather, and worship in the Wao Kele o Puna forest on the island of Hawaii. This land has had special significance for the native population for centuries as a place for hunting and religious gatherings. However, it had been under private ownership for many years. In 2006 the Office of Hawaiian Affairs announced the purchase of the 25,856-acre Wao Kele o Puna forest. This change in ownership is expected to allow for the permanent protection of the land and the protection of native rights for use of the land. The Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2007 was still before Congress as of April 2008. This proposed bill was designed to grant federal recognition of Native Hawaiians as an indigenous people, a move that could lead to the development of self-government on native homelands as well as greater access to health, education, employment, and cultural programs.

GENDER ISSUES

In traditional Native Hawaiian culture, gender roles were fairly well-defined with men as providers and protectors and women as caretakers of children and the home. The challenges affecting Native Hawaiian women in modern society are similar to those affecting women of other native or minority groups in the United States. The employment rate for Native Hawaiian women aged 16 years and older in the state of Hawaii was about 57% in 2006. There are more unwed mothers among the Native Hawaiian population than among other ethnic groups in the state.

Hawaii in 1998 passed a constitutional amendment banning homosexual marriage in the state. However, there is a thriving gay community on the Hawaiian islands.