Greeks

LOCATION: Greece
POPULATION: 11 million
LANGUAGE: Greek
RELIGION: Eastern Orthodox Christian Church

INTRODUCTION

Of the earliest Greek societies, the most important was the Minoan civilization, which flourished in the Bronze Age on the island of Crete (c.2700–1450 bc). It reached its peak around 1600 bc, and was notable for its magnificent cities, extensive trade, and its use of writing. Second, the mainland Mycenaean civilization, which flourished between 1600 and 1100, imported from the Minoans the first Greek writing and is reflected in the Homeric epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey.

Between the 8th and the 6th centuries bc, the Greek city-state, or polis, took shape, and the concepts of the rule of law and participatory democracy were conceived. By the 6th century the city-states of Athens and Sparta were rivals for dominance. The classical "golden age" of Athens in the 5th century encompassed great achievements in government, philosophy, drama, sculpture, and architecture. The influence of Greek civilization was expanded through the conquests of Alexander the Great (356–323 bc) before Greece was conquered by the Romans in 146 bc.

After more than 1,000 years as part of the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman) Empire, Greece came under Turkish rule after Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, fell to the Ottomans in 1453. After a 10-year struggle for independence, Greek sovereignty was established in 1831, marking the beginning of modern Greece. Over the next century, the nation's boundaries expanded as it gradually acquired islands and mainland territories. The first half of the 20th century was marked by the two world wars as well as hostilities with Turkey, and a civil war between 1944 and 1949. Greece became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, and a full member of the European Community in 1981.

After seven years of totalitarian military rule from 1967 to 1974, Greece became democratically governed. Its international concerns since World War II have been dominated by the Cold War and its rivalry with Turkey over the status of Cyprus. Since the break-up of the former Yugoslavia in 1991, Greece has vigorously opposed the use of the name "Republic of Macedonia" by the Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), fearing an expansionist threat to the Greek part of Macedonia—a geographical territory divided among Greece, Bulgaria, and FYROM.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Located in the southernmost part of the Balkan peninsula, Greece includes over 6,000 islands in the Ionian and Aegean Seas, of which about 227 are inhabited. About 80% of the country is covered by mountains, which form part of the Alpine system. Mt. Olympus, the legendary home of the Greek gods, is the highest peak, rising to 9,573 feet in east central Greece. The nation's coastline—over 14,000 km in length—is one of the longest in the world.

The majority of Greece's 11 million people are of Greek ethnic descent. Minorities include Th race Muslims, Slavs, Albanians, Armenians, and Vlachs, a people who lived semi-nomadically in the northern mountains in the 19th century. The massive emigration to North America, northern Europe, Australia, and other destinations in the first half of the 20th century has been offset by incoming immigration from the Balkans and Near Eastern countries at the end of the century. The Greeks travel extensively, and many live and work abroad.

LANGUAGE

The language is Modern Greek. Until 1976 a formal, if artificial, version called katharevousa, "pure," was used in official business. Originating in Byzantine scholarship, katharevousa attempted to imitate classical Greek, against the living language of the people ( demotiki, "demotic"). Katharevousa received momentum in the 19th century, and the heated debate about which version should be used came down as "The Language Question."

FOLKLORE

The ancient Greeks believed that each person's fate was predetermined. People's lives were a sum of their individual actions and their destiny, from which not even gods could escape. Unlike monotheistic deities, Greek gods were not above human passions and fallibilities. There were priests and priestesses at shrines called oracles, of which the most important was Delphi in the south. The gods were honored publicly at great festivals (including the Olympics) and privately at altars in people's homes with offerings of food and wine. Greek mythology was a way to explain the world, with each god and goddess responsible for a specific aspect of life. It has been tremendously influential in the ways the Western word has configured key ideas, like religion and national identity.

RELIGION

The Eastern Orthodox Christian Church has played a central role in Greek life. During the 400 years of Ottoman rule, the Church was the main unifying force of the Greek people. Greek history, art, literature, and music were preserved and transmitted partly through the church. Over 98% of today's Greeks belong to the Orthodox Church, which is described in the 1975 constitution as the "established religion" of Greece. Although freedom of religion is guaranteed to all Greeks, the Orthodox Church enjoys a special relationship with the government. The president of Greece must be a member and is sworn into office with church rites. Major religious holidays are also considered civil holidays.

It is common for religious Greeks to keep icons in an area of their homes, together with holy oil, holy water, and a special lamp. Many pray to a particular saint or saints in times of trouble, and pilgrimages are made to shrines considered especially holy. Religious customs have incorporated earlier elements of pagan beliefs.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Many of the major Greek holidays are those of the Orthodox Church. The most important are Easter and the Holy Week preceding it, which occur at a slightly different time from the Western calendar, and the Greeks emphasize the Resurrection rather than the Crucifixion. The New Year is dedicated to St. Basil and celebrated with gift giving and parties. Although Christmas trees have now dominated as the world's commonest festive decoration, the peculiar Greek equivalent was a ship to symbolize the ship that brought St. Basil to Greece. One New Year's tradition consists of hiding a coin in the dough of a special cake spiced with cinnamon, nutmeg, and orange peel. The person in whose piece the coin is found is thought to be blessed with prosperity and health for the year to come. Greeks celebrate both their birthdays and their name-days, the latter on the day dedicated to the saint for whom they are named.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Greece is a modern, industrialized country with a Christian tradition. Many of the rites of passage that young people undergo are religious rituals, such as baptism, first Communion, and marriage. Unlike Roman Catholics, the first communion is not especially celebrated, and there is no confirmation.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

The Greeks are known for their lively, outgoing nature. Spending time in parëes, or groups of friends, is a common form of entertainment in private houses and coffee shops, waterfront taverns, and village squares, with people gesturing energetically in conversation. It is acceptable for two heterosexual women, less so of men, to walk in public arm-in-arm as a sign of camaraderie.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The bigger the city the more people live in apartment blocks. This widespread European building arrangement is a compound of apartments in a single building. Usually floors vary from two to six. City dwellers comprise more than half the population, with Athens, the capital, approaching 5 million. In smaller towns and villages, the majority of the people live in family-owned one- and two-storey homes. Many Greeks have summer houses.

The sea has traditionally linked Greek cities and towns. As in all of Europe, Greeks rely heavily on public transportation. Athens has an efficient subway. Another one in Thessaloniki, the second largest city, is scheduled to operate in 2013. Nonetheless, the per capita ownership of cars ranks among the highest in Europe.

Health care is provided primarily by the state-run National Health Service. Private facilities are available. The number of doctors is very large (1 for every 450–500 residents), but the bulk of practitioners is concentrated in the bigger cities. However, most towns do have hospitals and/or clinics. Abortion is legal.

FAMILY LIFE

The average age at which Greek men normally marry is 28, and the average age for women is 26. Greece has a higher marriage rate and lower divorce rate than the countries of northern Europe. The basic family unit is the nuclear family—a husband, wife, and their children. The bond remains intact even after children marry. It is not considered improper for couples to live with one spouse's family until they are ready to buy their own house. Grown sons and daughters traditionally live with their parents until they marry, and aging parents often join the household when it becomes difficult for them to care for themselves. In January 1983 the Greek parliament legislated changes in the family laws that made divorce easier, abolished the dowry as a legal requirement for marriage, and guaranteed legal equality between marriage partners.

Nowadays rivalries between families and honor-related crimes survive only in a handful of specific rural areas. Westernization, urbanization, and industrialization have modified the traditional ideal of "honorable behavior." Adultery ceased being a penal crime in 1983. Women gained the right to vote in the early 1950s and have dramatically increased their role in the Greek labor force. In the late 1980s women accounted for one-fifth of all industrial jobs and one-third of all jobs in the service sector.

CLOTHING

It goes without saying that the traditional 19th-century costume of tunic, vest, and pleated kilt-like skirt is worn only by folk dancers at festivals in the 21st century.

FOOD

Greek cooking exemplifies the Mediterranean cuisine, where olive oil predominates. Staples include tomatoes, rice, yogurt, shish kebab, and feta cheese (made from goat's or sheep's milk). Bread is served with every meal. Lamb is used extensively, and so are seasonal vegetables, fruit, and an abundance of native herbs, such as thyme, basil, oregano, rosemary, rue, and sage. An example of a traditional dish is minced meat with spices, rice, and herbs, wrapped in grape leaves or stuffed into vegetables. Greek pastries—many of them extremely sweet and made from a paper-thin dough called filo— are eaten not as desserts but as afternoon or late-night snacks. Two typically Greek drinks are ouzo, the aniseed residue of winemaking, and retsina, a resinated white wine. A toast of "Yiassas" ("your health") can often be heard, together with the clinking of glasses, wherever Greeks gather to enjoy food and drink.

EDUCATION

Approximately 20.6% of Greeks are high school graduates. One is considered to be illiterate if one has not finished the six-years of primary school (not simply if one cannot read and write). By this (more rigorous) standard, illiteracy is 7%. Education is compulsory for nine years until the age of 15. Students can choose between three more optional years in either high school or technical programs. There is a highly competitive university system, as well as postsecondary technical and vocational schools. The system is state-run and free of charge at all stages, although there exist private schools for those who wish to opt out of the state system.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Even before the great flowering of culture in Athens in the 5th century bc, Greece had already given the world the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer. With the classical golden age of Athens came the philosophical teachings of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the great tragedies of Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles, and the comedies of Aristophanes. Greek sculpture progressed from stylization to naturalism, while Greek architecture, which had already introduced the grid town plan and the temple, produced the Parthenon and gave the world the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles.

In the 20th century there was a renaissance of Greek literature that includes the writings of novelist Nikos Kazantzakis and the poetry of C. P. Cavafy, Nikos Gatsos, and Nobel laureates George Seferis and Odysseus Elytis. Modern Greek literature was strongly influenced by such political events as the Greco-Italian war of 1940–41, the German occupation, the civil war of 1944–49, and the military regime of 1967–75. Well-known composers include Mikis Theodorakis, who set Elytis's major work, To Axion Esti, to music, and Manos Hadjidakis, who wrote the film score for Never on Sunday. Contemporary composers often use the instruments and melodies of Greek folk music, especially the bouzouki, a mandolin-like stringed instrument, as well as the santouri (dulcimer), clarinet, lute, and drums.

WORK

Economic development has increased in services, international trade, shipping and tourism. Greece is among the least industrialized nations of Europe. Food, beverage, and tobacco processing are the foremost industries, followed by textiles and clothing, metallurgy, chemical manufacturing and shipbuilding. An important part of the economy has been family-owned small businesses; in 1990, 85% of Greek manufacturing concerns had fewer than 10 employees. The proportion of Greeks engaged in farming had declined to one-third by 1990. Important farm products include grain, olives, cotton, tobacco, fruits, and wheat. Aside from farming, the other major occupations of Greek villagers are fishing and sheep- or goat-herding.

SPORTS

In sports, Greece's Olympic tradition dates back to ancient times. Today, soccer and basketball are the most popular sports. Other favorite sports include volleyball, tennis, swimming and water skiing at the nation's many beaches, sailing, fishing, and mountain climbing.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

In the country, coffee shops—generally in the village square— are popular gathering places where people congregate after work to socialize. In urban areas, Greeks enjoy television, movies, theater, and concerts. Forms of traditional entertainment include folk dances performed by dance troupes wearing colorful costumes, with accompaniment led by the bouzouki, and karagiozi, a shadow puppet show that is performed live and can also be seen weekly on television. Operas, concerts, ballets and ancient Greek dramas are presented at the Athens Festival each summer. Classical drama is also performed in open-air theaters, the most famous of which is in Epidaurus.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Craftspeople throughout Greece practice weaving, knitting, embroidery, carving, metalworking, and pottery. Village women are known for their colorful fabrics and carpets and elaborate wall-hangings.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

HIV/AIDS and drug abuse are major problems. The proportion of drug users doubled in the 1980s, with the largest increase among women and the poor. Marijuana is the most frequently used drug. A major domestic problem in Greek society is illegal immigration from the Balkans and the Middle East. Homelessness is exceptionally low, due to strong family ties.

GENDER ISSUES

Equality of the sexes has been established by a 1983 law. As everywhere else in the Western world, discrimination on the base of one's sex is something of a thing of the past, although there is always room for improvement. One out of six Greek members of parliament is a woman. Around 60% of each year's college graduates are women. As of the late 2000s, there has been some debate about same-sex marriage, but this remains illegal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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—revised by K. Yiavis