MUSIC

European music in the nineteenth century underwent changes in its institutions, its place in cultural life, and its compositional genres and styles, all of which retain their relevance into the present. The key institutions of musical life, so familiar today as to be taken for granted, established themselves in the course of the nineteenth century. Subscription concerts, symphony orchestras, music conservatories, and music journalism began the century in their infancy and grew to be defining features of musical production. Opera houses, already widespread in the eighteenth century, expanded their audiences and public visibility. At the same time, writing about music attested to the emergence and spread of the Romantic music aesthetic. People increasingly attributed to music the capacity to allow them to feel things more deeply and experience states of being beyond everyday hustle and bustle. Finally, shaping all these developments was the accumulation in the course of the nineteenth century of a body of musical compositions that still occupies a central place in formal musical performance and, to a lesser extent, in informal musical experience. No music of the past so dominates Western and even non-Western musical culture as does nineteenth-century European art music. The century of Beethoven, Rossini, Schubert, Bellini, Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner, Verdi, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Dvo?ák, Bruckner, and Debussy, to name but a few people in a compositional landscape of great richness and variety, was the century in which Western tonal music explored its furthest reaches and enduringly shaped the modern listening public, whether of so-called classical or of popular music (a distinction itself a product of the nineteenth century).

music and society

The growing cultural confidence of the middle classes in Europe expressed itself in all aspects of the development of European music in the nineteenth century. Dramatic changes in the intellectual and political life of Europe at the end of the eighteenth century fundamentally changed the environment in which the arts, including music, flourished in the nineteenth. Except for town musicians, who had guilds like other craftsmen, musicians had for centuries composed and performed under the aegis of some kind of patronage, whether of church or court. But by 1800 the capacity of such patronage to sustain musical culture in Europe had all but collapsed, and it had become clear to forward-looking musicians that the future of European music lay with the educated, middle-class public. Aristocratic patronage still played a role, especially in maintaining expensive opera houses and a number of court orchestras, but even in such cases, patronage evolved into state support, as governments at the local and state level took over the task of maintaining musical institutions and founding new ones, especially music conservatories. The French government founded the most celebrated and ironically the most conservative of these, Paris's Conservatoire National de Musique et de Déclamation, in the middle of the revolutionary decade of the 1790s. But state support for the arts increasingly reflected the interest of expanding middle classes, not aristocrats nostalgic for court life. Educated, nonnoble elites also created new forms of musical consumption of their own. Some of these innovations remained to the side of a developing musical marketplace. Local notables organized nonprofit associations for music-lovers, like Vienna's Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (Society of the Friends of Music), founded in 1812 to sponsor subscription concert series. If the community proved receptive enough, such associations could sustain a permanent orchestra, as did the London Philharmonic Society (1813), and even finance the construction of new buildings. Musical amateurs, the majority of them middle class in social position, also founded voluntary organizations for their own musical activities, the most widespread of which were amateur choral societies.

As paying customers, the European middle classes also sustained the growth of the musical marketplace, a web of commercial relations among musicians, music publishers, concert organizers, opera impresarios, and the purchasers of tickets and musical scores. This marketplace had begun to operate already in the seventeenth century: in 1637 the first public opera house opened in Venice to anyone who could buy a ticket, and in 1672 the English coal merchant Thomas Britton began to offer regular subscription concerts in his house. But the nineteenth century marked the point when commercial relations became more important than patronage in sustaining musical life. Entrepreneurs, often themselves musicians, created the business of modern concert promotion and management, renting halls and sponsoring traveling artists. The tumultuous success of the pianist Franz Liszt (1811–1886) and the violinist Niccolò Paganini (1782–1840) as traveling virtuosos in the 1820s established one type of commercial concert; the soprano Jenny Lind's American tour, organized in 1850 by P. T. Barnum, was the natural extension of this model. Also, after 1850, as the orchestra became the center of concert life and grew in size, so too did audiences become larger and commercial possibilities greater. Kings and princes had long built opera houses as imposing physical evidence of their cultural patronage. In the nineteenth century urban elites built their own cultural edifices, often not for opera but for instrumental and choral concerts. Manchester's Free Trade Hall, originally a wooden building to hold the Anti–Corn Law League's protest meeting, was rebuilt as a substantial neoclassical stone edifice in 1856, decorated with allegorical figures of free trade and filled with concerts that attested to the commercial elite's cultural aspirations.

Other aspects of musical commerce fed off concerts and contributed to their ticket sales. Music journalism grew in order to review concerts and to teach middle-class consumers how to listen to and pass judgment on music. Music critics became key figures in the development of national musical cultures, and writers like Friedrich Rochlitz (1769–1842) and Robert Schumann (1810–1856) helped to create a musically attentive public and paved the way for a later generation of concert critics, such as Eduard Hanslick in Vienna, to become cultural arbiters of the highest order. Paris, one of the busiest musical capitals of Europe, soon had fourteen music magazines with as many as two dozen music critics able to make a living writing for them. In turn, music lovers paid legions of private instructors to teach them how to sing and play the piano: Paris in 1840 had an estimated fifty thousand amateur pianists. And as increasing numbers of people had the money and the time to pursue amateur musical interests, the manufacture of musical instruments increased, especially of the piano, versatile enough to serve as solo instrument or as accompaniment to song and dance.

The nineteenth century was the century of the piano, with technological developments following one another rapidly from the 1770s on, ultimately producing by about 1860 the modern concert grand piano. More suited to the home, the upright piano, in which the strings and their casing were turned up on end, was first developed in the 1830s. The proud owners of all these pianos also bought sheet music, so publishing houses were able to underwrite a composer's livelihood, especially if the composer was willing to create two- or four-hand piano reductions of his symphonies (as was, for instance, Johannes Brahms, though anonymously). Music publishing houses also produced many dubiously helpful manuals for learning how to play an instrument or sing, and instructional charlatans proliferated, alongside sellers of cure-all tonics.

musical genres of the nineteenth century

If musical culture in the nineteenth century reflected the workings of new institutions as well as the lingering influence of older ones, so too did it take place along a spectrum of musical experiences from the grandly public to the intimately private. The works of nineteenth-century composers reflect this spectrum, just as do the practices of musical life. The most prestigious of nineteenth-century musical genres was the opera. Opera had established itself as the most elaborate of princely ornaments in the course of the eighteenth century in every European country, from Russia to Portugal, and where princes lost their power at the end of the century, states and cities carried on their role. In the course of the nineteenth century, the distinction between serious and comic opera, which was already blurred in the operas of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), disappeared. Instead, operas fell into national categories, albeit everywhere saturated with international influences. So, for instance, French opera from 1790 on saw the rise in popularity of the relatively small-scale opéra comique, which now took on more lyrical musical expression and more sober themes. The same period saw the invention, out of the declining genre of opera seria, of grand opera, marked by extravagant, often deliberately shocking scenic effects, enormous orchestral sound, and vast choruses of singers. Throughout the nineteenth century, Paris remained at the apogee of operatic production, with Italy providing much of the musical material. The latter half of the nineteenth century was marked in both Germany and Italy by the domination in each of a single, towering figure, Richard Wagner (1813–1883) and Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901), each of whom transformed opera, albeit differently. As opera became increasingly large in scale, whether in the hands of French grand opera's Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791–1864) or Verdi or Wagner, the numerous eighteenth-century opera houses proved inadequate in size. The century's many new opera houses also provided a visual embodiment appropriate to the prestige and popularity of the musical spectacle inside. The Semper Opernhaus in Dresden (1841), the Royal Opera House at Convent Garden in London (1858), Wagner's Bayreuth Festspielhaus (1876), the Palais Garnier in Paris (1875), and the Teatro Costanzi (1880) in Rome were some of the most famous.

Just as important to public musical life in the nineteenth century was the enormous expansion in numbers of public concerts. The institutionalization of the concert involved the creation of a new ritual around the musical performance, which could actually take place in a wide range of settings, not all of them large or grand. The formal public concert had its beginnings in the urban sociability of the eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth century became the centerpiece of musical culture in Europe's many smaller cities, as well as a nearly equal partner to opera in the large and capital cities. The concert took on its now-familiar aspects in the nineteenth century: some kind of hall with seating usually arranged facing a stage; the rejection of overt theatricality in the dress of the performers or the decoration of the stage (in pointed contrast to grand opera); the applause for the arrival of the principal musicians; the conductor directing the orchestra with his back to the audience; silence during the performance, and applause afterward and only after an entire work had ended. The concert ideal was not egalitarian. It reflected a strong concept of art, which demanded of the listener high levels of training and attention and an emphasis

on the musical score and its complexities as much as on the musical performance. Concert performances came to be judged as more-or-less perfect realizations of the intentions of the composer, as he had set them down on paper for posterity, and concert programs evolved from the eighteenth-century model of potpourris of musical bits and pieces, not always by identifiable composers, to major works performed in their entirety.

Central to the growth of concert life was the rise in prestige of purely instrumental music, perhaps the single most important foundation for the serious musical cultures of the nineteenth century. Complex intellectual and musical developments account for this remarkable change in the cultural value granted to instrumental music, but by the first decades of the nineteenth century, the musical public, first in Germany and England and soon across Europe, proved willing to grant an equal aesthetic value to instrumental works and operas; some, indeed, considered purely instrumental works aesthetically superior. The most important genre of instrumental music was unquestionably the symphony, with concerti, overtures, and eventually the so-called symphonic or tone poems playing a secondary role. The term symphony first appeared in the late sixteenth century, meaning simply "music for ensemble," and for the next two centuries it implied little more than an overture or interlude in the larger context of an opera or cantata. But with the symphonies of Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Mozart, the symphony became a major synthetic and cosmopolitan musical genre, marked by richness of harmony and orchestration, a strong sense of form, considerable length (typically four separate movements), and great emotional expressivity.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) further transformed the symphony, extending its length but most importantly giving it an expressive power that led contemporaries to crown the symphony the highest of artistic creations. Writing symphonies after Beethoven became at once the most difficult and the most important of compositional tasks, and performing them proved equally challenging. The modern symphony orchestra was another direct result of the Viennese (Haydn-Mozart-Beethoven) achievement. It was larger than its predecessors and more standard in its instrumental make-up, consisting of greater numbers of string instruments than before; a woodwind section of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons; a brass section of horns, trumpets, and trombones; numerous percussionists; and often a harp as well. As the size of symphonies grew larger and orchestras grew to perform them, conducting too took on its modern guise, both in order to control the greater numbers of musicians and to guide them through a demanding musical repertoire. Among the most admired orchestras of the nineteenth century was the Gewandhaus Orchestra of Leipzig, which under the direction of Felix Mendelssohn (1809–1847) became the progenitor of the modern concert with its repertoire firmly rooted in past so-called masterworks yet still open, albeit cautiously, to new talent.

But not all musical genres or musical experiences of the nineteenth century demanded the resources needed for opera and symphony concert. The daily fare of the musical life of Paris and London, for instance, was the piano-based musicale, in which a typical program included the featured pianist and one or two other instrumentalists (violinists being the most common). Salons of the nineteenth century became important sites for concertizing and had their own quasi-formal rituals of performance and appreciation. Composers of the nineteenth century produced a great deal of music in the smaller forms appropriate to salon and recital hall. Chamber music and piano music of the nineteenth century traversed a huge range of difficulty and complexity and included forms from the solo piano etude to the octet for double string quartet. In sheer numbers, much of this music consisted of simple concoctions for the amateur, now mostly forgotten, but at the same time, the nineteenth century saw the maturation of a number of eighteenth-century genres, with Beethoven's thirty-two piano sonatas and fifteen string quartets representing for those who came after him something so great as to virtually close down the form. For whatever reason, nineteenth-century chamber and piano music is marked by immense variety, experimentation, and inventiveness, a tribute in part to the reliable audience for its composers and performers.

For women, the salon and recital hall setting could be the only available venue for musical performance. Nineteenth-century trends toward professionalization in musical careers brought about a marked decline in numbers of women performers and composers. Shut out of conservatories and excluded from professional orchestras, women musicians found professional opportunities primarily in singing and piano performance. Amateur organizations also provided a context for quasi-public performances of men and women together. Most cities had several musical associations, including amateur orchestras and chamber music groups, mixed-voice choirs, and men's glee clubs. Amateur artistry took place both in and out of the public eye and both with and without paid professionals, its relation to publicity and professionalism remaining constantly in flux. Choral performances became the most common form of public activity undertaken by amateur musicians, and the nineteenth century consequently saw the composition of much new choral music as well as a steady stream of revivals of choral works of earlier eras. In Germany and England, the outdoor regional music festival became a popular feature of musical life, centered on performances of oratorios by Handel and Haydn, as well as popular new large-scale works by composers like Mendelssohn and Johannes Brahms (1833–1897).

composers of the nineteenth century

The term Romanticism has often served as a general description for all art music of the nineteenth century, and the practice is not entirely misleading, particularly if one bears in mind that Romanticism in music refers not to uniformity of sound but rather to the cultural orientation of those who composed it and listened to it. For the music critics of the early nineteenth century, who taught educated Europeans how to listen, music itself was Romantic because its mode of expression was abstract yet capable of the most profound emotional power. Nor does the assertion that music never ceased to be Romantic in the nineteenth century, simply passing through various stages of Romanticism from early to middle to late, deny the existence of other musical trends, including historicism, exoticism, naturalism, nationalism, and even realism, each of which, when considered from a musical perspective, seems more like a current in the Romantic stream than an opposing movement. Romanticism expressed an orientation to the world that has been called "the greatest single shift in the consciousness of the West," from a belief that the world was knowable and consistent in all its parts to a belief in "the necessity of the will and the absence of a structure of things" (Berlin, p. xi). In musical life, what followed from that shift was the pursuit of originality, often through special effects and expressive extremes, created through an enriched harmonic vocabulary and the exploitation of instrumental textures and tone colors. Romanticism denoted a belief both in the importance of the arts over all other aspects of life and in the capacity of the most gifted musicians to express what is otherwise inexpressible about existence.

Musical audiences in nineteenth-century Europe listened to more than just the music of their countrymen, and composers, even minor ones, reflected international musical developments more than narrowly national traditions. Nevertheless, composers are usually identified by nationality, and the designation is neither meaningless nor merely convenient. First, in the nineteenth century Europeans consolidated their national artistic traditions—a process called canon formation. That in turn shaped how composers thought about their own creative work. Second, musicians at work in the cosmopolitan world of music, including those enjoying tremendous success outside their native land, felt the undertow of national identity, the force of which only increased over the course of the century. Third, distinctive national styles did emerge, often through the cultivation of deliberate stylistic gestures on the part of nationally conscious composers. Fourth, insofar as print culture helped to shape the meaning of music and engender a broader sense of belonging to a musical community, the different national languages of Europe consolidated a country's musical life. The consequence of all these considerations was a densely woven net of relationships and influence among composers and musicians at work in particular national cultures.

German-speaking Europe

Starting with German-speaking Europe, where the boundaries of the political units never coincided with those of the category of German music, the nineteenth century established the domination of German composers in the concert halls of Europe. This reflected in part the Europe-wide acceptance of the Beethoven myth, which combined the Promethean myth of suffering and triumph with the Romantic era's extreme valorization of musical genius. The reality behind Beethoven's towering presence in the nineteenth century was his composition in the first decades of the century of the bulk of his creations, including the Third through the Ninth symphonies, most of the piano sonatas, the profoundest string quartets, and the immense Missa Solemnis. In these, he seemed to his successors to have explored all of human existence with an unmatchable command of musical language. In central Europe, the question quickly became how anyone could follow in his footsteps. In north Germany, Carl Maria von Weber (1786–1826) laid out an alternative path of Romantic opera but died young, with only Der Freischütz (1821) making a strong impression on his contemporaries. Franz Schubert (1797–1828) of Vienna approached the Beethoven problem by both following and working around him. In his short life, he wrote eight symphonies, numerous chamber works, and an unmatched corpus of over six hundred Lieder or art songs. He too died young, just a year after Beethoven.

Subsequent generations of German composers represented a wide range of responses to the burden of the past. Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann, whose careers flourished in the early middle decades of the century, both embraced the music of the past as a living part of the music of the present. Mendelssohn, a scion of educated Germany's most famous Jewish family, drew compositional inspiration from Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Mozart, and Beethoven. He was a key figure in the nineteenth-century revival of Bach's works and integrated elements of Bach's style especially into his oratorios (Paulus, 1836, and Elijah, 1846). His instrumental compositions (including the precociously brilliant Octet for Strings [1825], arguably the greatest example of youthful genius in European music) showed both Mozartian grace and Beethovenian aspirations. Schumann, who founded in 1834 one of the most influential music journals of the century, the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, centered his work on the smaller genres of piano music (more than thirty major works that seek to evoke mood, personality, and atmosphere) and song (more than 240). But he also wrote symphonies and welcomed, through his journalism, any sign of a new Beethoven appearing on the musical scene. This finally happened in 1854, when the twenty-year-old Johannes Brahms appeared on Schumann's doorstep with piano compositions to play for him. Schumann hailed Brahms in print as the "young eagle" swooping down from the mountains of artistic inspiration, and Brahms spent the rest of his long and fruitful life laboring under the double burden of his own and others' expectations. He did compose symphonies, string quartets, and concerti, in the tradition of Beethoven yet distinctively his own, and his German Requiem, as well as his contributions to the Lieder repertoire, reflected artistic debts to the other "giants" of the past, the tramp of whose feet he complained always to hear coming up behind him.

Richard Wagner (1813–1883), for his part, declared Beethoven's Ninth Symphony the end of the line in symphonic development, with its choral finale bursting the bonds of purely instrumental music and pointing the way forward to Wagner's own creative work—the eleven "music dramas" he composed beginning in 1842 with Rienzi and culminating in Parsifal in 1882. In between, he composed works as different as Tristan und Isolde (1865), the freely moving chromatic harmony of which was unprecedented in music and expressed an unrelentingly bleak story of doomed love, and Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg (1868), his only drama with a happy ending. He composed the great Ring cycle, consisting of four massive music dramas (Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Gëtterdämmerung) over a period of more than two decades. In 1876, it premiered in the theater he designed expressly for it, in the small Bavarian town of Bayreuth, far from what he thought of as the superficial glamor of urban theatrical display. Wagner, in turn, bequeathed a new problem to his successors, for now both opera and symphony seemed too complete for further additions. Some, like the song composer Hugo Wolf (1860–1903), turned to intense miniaturism, compressing an entire music drama into a single Lied. Others, like Anton Bruckner (1824–1896) and Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), turned away from opera to a kind of symphonic maximalism, which in the case of Mahler synthesized voice and instrument on a far grander, more unrestrainedly expressive scale than Beethoven had attempted.

Non-German composers, especially those to the north and east of German-speaking Europe and within the boundaries of the Vienna-centered Austro-Hungarian Empire, faced their own German problem of finding a musical voice in cultures dominated by great weight of the German musical repertoire. Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849), one born in Hungary and brought up musically in Vienna, the other the Polish-born son of a French father teaching in Warsaw, cultivated cosmopolitanism. For Chopin, this meant making his musical career in Paris, where his piano compositions, at once delicate and demanding, earned him much admiration. For Liszt, who lived longer, the route around Germany led him back through it numerous times. After retiring in 1849 from the virtuoso career that had taken him all across Europe, Liszt worked first as the court music director in Weimar then moved at the end of his life to Rome. His prolific output of piano and orchestral works represented a deliberate effort to escape Beethoven through instrumental color, extraneous poetic "programming," virtuosic elaboration, and a certain formlessness, for all of which he earned the intense admiration of some but the bitter opposition of composers like Schumann and Brahms. Others (including to some extent both Chopin and Liszt) differentiated themselves from German composition by cultivating national color in their work. Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857), who studied with German musicians in Russia as well as in Germany itself, was the first to represent a model repeated all across central and eastern Europe, of intense admiration for German musical culture combined with an equally intense desire to escape it. His musical nationalist solution was to write Russian national operas (e.g., A Life for the Tsar, 1836) and orchestral works with a Russian flavor (e.g., Kamarinskaya, 1848). His successors in Russia consisted most prominently of the Balakirev circle of self-consciously Russian composers, known as The Five and including Alexander Borodin (1833–1887), Modest Mussorgsky (1839–1881), and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908). Peter Tchaikovsky (1840–1893) rejected the circle but nevertheless contributed to the establishment of Russian composition as a distinctive voice in European music. Antonin Dvo?ák (1841–1904) in Prague and Edvard Grieg (1843–1907) in Norway, both indebted to German musical culture for their training, found musical means to express the national character of their homelands by integrating folk music and its distinctive harmonies into their formal compositions. For both, their international reputations stemmed from the popular appeal both of their music and of their embodiment of a seemingly authentic national voice.

Italy and France

Nineteenth century musical life can be seen to fall either under the shadow of Beethoven or the spell of Gioacchino Rossini (1792–1868). Rossini, who liked to call himself the last of the classicists, achieved fame early with light works and comic operas, including his most famous work Il Barbiere di Siviglia (1816; Barber of Seville), then proceeded to write thirty-six operas in fewer than twenty years, many of them serious and all of them written under the rushed conditions of Italy's multicentered, year-round opera mania. He effectively retired from theatrical composition at age thirty-seven and spent the rest of his long life presiding genially over the musical scene in Italy and France. He not only was the architect of Italian Romanticism, in which he was followed by Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835), Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848), and the young Giuseppe Verdi, but he also inspired French Romanticism with his melodic vitality, formal balance, mastery of rhythm, and faultless sense of style. However the greatest of the nineteenth-century French composers, Hector Berlioz (1803–1869) and the long-lived Camille Saint-Saëns (1835–1921), brought more musical inventiveness and range to the Rossinian pleasantries. Berlioz especially was committed to the idea that instrumental music could convey as much drama and feeling as opera, without succumbing to German abstraction. Verdi added an element of seriousness to the Rossinian model, bringing politics to the opera world with works that were received by his countrymen as veiled calls for unification and freedom (e.g., Hernani, 1844, and Rigoletto, 1851). Verdi's later operas became the foundation of the grand opera repertoire of the later nineteenth century (Il Trovatore, 1853; La Traviata, 1853; Aïda, 1871, composed in Cairo in honor of the opening of the Suez Canal), and his choral-orchestral Requiem (1874) was considered in its day one of the greatest works of the century.

The two decades before the outbreak of World War I served as a pivotal moment in musical development, both consolidating the trends of the previous century and overthrowing its musical strictures in startling, even shocking ways. This final period can be seen to begin in 1886, with the long-awaited universal recognition of an international copyright union. This finally codified the high value the previous century had placed on artistic originality and encouraged the upcoming

generation to a freewheeling experimentation, now recognized by law. In France, the characteristic figure of the period was Claude Debussy (1862–1918), regarded in his time as the musical counterpart to French impressionism. His abandonment of the conventional rules of harmonic development in favor of sheer sound and texture signaled a rejection of the whole Germano-centric canon of tonal development, then reaching its most extreme form in the symphonies of Mahler. Debussy's works were generally short and evocative, as well as titled to suggest visual images like footsteps in the snow, light on the water, or moonlight. In Germany, meanwhile, the date 1908 looms large in music histories as the year when Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), the reluctant revolutionary, "discovered" atonality, decisively breaking with a centuries-long development of notes arranged by so-called keys, usually in the major or minor mode. Finally, 1913 marks, for both music and cultural historians, the beginning of twentieth-century turmoil with the infamously tumultuous premier in Paris of Igor Stravinsky's (1882–1971) Rite of Spring. This Russian composer sought to tap the primal drives of human life with percussive, irregular rhythms and clashing tones. For all these composers, something deeply Romantic persisted in their attitude toward art's special place in society, but the questions of how and even whether musical tones could express the inner life of humans or contribute to human progress had become increasingly difficult to answer.

See alsoBeethoven, Ludwig van; Brahms, Johannes; Debussy, Claude; Liszt, Franz; Tchaikovsky, Peter; Wagner, Richard.

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Celia Applegate