CYCLING

Cycling emerged as a spectator sport and recreational activity in 1868, shortly after the pioneer firm Michaux of Paris introduced a novel pedal-powered two-wheeled vehicle known as a "vélocipède" (from the Latin for "fast feet"). This basic bicycle, later dubbed a "boneshaker" on account of its harsh ride, was both costly and crude. Its pedals were attached directly to the front hub, its wheels were wooden, and its frame was solid iron. Typically weighing about seventy pounds, it could barely achieve ten miles an hour. Nevertheless, it was an encouraging breakthrough in the ancient quest for a practical "mechanical horse."

Amid general excitement, velocipede racing soon proved a popular attraction. The first well-publicized contests, covering barely a mile, took place in the Parisian suburb of Saint Cloud on 31 May 1868. A year later, bicycle construction had improved appreciably, and outdoor races had become commonplace throughout France. Often linked to popular festivals, programs typically featured colorful jockey attire, women's races, obstacle races, and "slow" races (the winner being the last to cross the finish line without having fallen). The first major city-to-city race took place on 7 November 1869, between Paris and Rouen. The winner, James Moore, covered about eighty miles in the impressive time of ten and one-half hours.

In the same period, recreational cycling began to attract scores of athletic, well-to-do males. As early as January 1868 Albert Laumaillé of Chatêau-Gontier ordered from Michaux an especially robust bicycle with which he intended to tour Brittany. By mid-1869 more than a dozen velocipede clubs operated across France, conducting regular jaunts into the countryside. The trade periodical Le Vélocipède Illustré reported race results and kept enthusiasts abreast of the latest technical developments. About a hundred French firms were producing bicycles by this time, and their collective output is believed to have reached tens of thousands.

Despite the evident technical limitations of the velocipede and its prohibitive cost, many enthusiasts fully expected it to evolve into a practical and affordable vehicle, possibly even supplanting travel by horse. The Société Pratique des Vélocipèdes, founded in Paris in December 1868, offered prizes to mechanics who found ways to improve bicycle construction or lower its cost. The outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in mid-1870, however, derailed the French bicycle industry before it could realize a "people's nag." Fortunately, several other countries had already adopted the bicycle. The American industry met an early demise, plagued by exorbitant royalty demands stemming from the Lallement patent. Filed in New Haven, Connecticut, by the French mechanic Pierre Lallement, this unique patent defining the basic bicycle was granted on 20 November 1866. Calvin Witty, a carriage and velocipede maker in Brooklyn, acquired the patent in early 1869 and immediately issued steep royalty demands on his competitors, causing considerable consternation in the nascent industry. However, the primitive vehicle found especially fertile territory for development in England. Even as popular interest there faded by the end of 1869, the budding sport had established a devoted community of racers, tourists, and mechanics.

the high-wheel era, 1870s and 1880s

In the early 1870s a new bicycle profile began to take shape in England, having an enlarged front wheel for improved gearing and a correspondingly reduced trailer. By the middle of that decade, the "high bicycle" (sometimes referred to by historians as a high-wheeler or penny farthing) had emerged as the dominant cycle. This trumpeted "modern bicycle" weighed only about forty pounds and could approach twenty miles per hour, thanks to such key innovations as wire wheels, solid rubber tires, and a tubular frame. Its joints also became smoother, with ball bearings coming into general use by 1880. The cyclist sat almost directly over the pedals, allowing application of his or her full force. The large elastic wheel also coped reasonably well with the poor roads of the day, allowing daily journeys in excess of one hundred miles and generally keeping the rider above the road dust.

The daunting new bicycle was nonetheless of limited popular appeal. It was manifestly impractical for everyday errands, and was widely perceived as a purely recreational vehicle for the amusement of affluent and physically fit young men. That market was nonetheless a significant one, and the British bicycle industry, based largely in Coventry, enjoyed prosperity in the late 1870s. Britain hosted dozens of cycling clubs and about one hundred thousand bicycles and tricycles. Cycling also spread throughout continental Europe, North America, and the entire British Empire, despite widespread complaints that "silent steeds" frightened horses and provoked accidents. To ensure access to the roads, and to improve their construction, cyclists formed lobbying groups such as the Bicycle Union in Britain and the League of American Wheelmen in the United States. Other organizations, such as Britain's Cyclists' Touring Club (established in 1878) catered to recreational riders, offering members maps and discounts at hotels and pubs.

Despite the public's misgivings about the high mount on the road, it continued to favor bicycle racing. The sport became especially prominent in Britain, where races on outdoor tracks, typically covering between one and twenty-five miles, regularly drew thousands of spectators. By the mid-1870s the country had produced a number of well-known amateur racers such as Ion Keith-Falconer, a towering Scottish aristocrat who became a noted Arab scholar and Christian missionary. John Keen, a maker in Surbiton, was among the most accomplished professionals. Endurance riding on tracks, covering hundreds of miles over periods of up to six days, also became a popular attraction. Meanwhile, the bicycle continued to prove itself on the road. The press regularly reported cycling exploits such as record-setting rides from Land's End to John O'Groats, the two most distant points in Great Britain. Thomas Stevens's celebrated round-the-world adventure, initiated in 1884, helped to project a romantic image of bicycle touring. Parades featuring club members in uniforms also regaled the public.

The technical success of the high bicycle, and its evident recreational benefits, prompted growing demands among the well-to-do for safer varieties of cycles. By the mid-1880s tricycles had gained a strong following on both sides of the Atlantic, notably among society women. Growing numbers of men, wary of being pitched from the precarious high mount (an indignity popularly known as a "header"), also favored the more stable three-wheeler. Alternative bicycle configurations designed to minimize the risk of injury, such as the British Kangaroo and the American Star, likewise achieved a degree of commercial success. For the most part, however, cycling remained an expensive and elitist pursuit.

the bicycle boom, 1890s

The cycling scene changed dramatically in the 1890s, following the introduction of a new-style low mount popularly known as the safety bicycle. As early as 1885 James K. Starley of Coventry, England, presented his Rover bicycle, which used a chain and sprocket to achieve favorable gearing without the need for an oversize driving wheel. At first, few anticipated that this comparatively complicated design would claim a significant market share, much less supplant the conventional high bicycle. But as the new design gradually improved, and more makers began to offer variations, its advantages became increasingly apparent. The timely introduction of the inflatable or pneumatic tire, presented by the Scottish veterinarian John Dunlop in 1888, sealed the fate of the high wheeler, or Ordinary, as it came to be called. The safety bicycle with pneumatic tires proved not only the safer alternative, but also the faster machine. The inviting low-mount also appealed to women, who had been largely excluded from the sport.

By the early 1890s demand for safety bicycles surged on both sides of the Atlantic. Dozens of firms rushed into the trade and soon produced a variety of models and millions of machines. Some reactionaries protested that cycling encouraged immodest dress and even promiscuity among women, as well as reckless riding among men. Others warned that excessive cycling would lead to permanent health problems such as a stooped posture. But the general consensus held that moderate cycling was a healthy and desirable activity for both sexes, regardless of age.

With so many people identifying with the new-style bicycle, cycling as a spectator sport reached new heights of popularity. Thousands flocked to indoor and outdoor rinks known as velodromes to watch celebrated champions such as the American A. A. Zimmerman compete for lucrative prizes. Road racing also excited the popular imagination, especially in Europe. One memorable race in 1893, from Vienna to Berlin, introduced millions of central Europeans to the sport. Road races also proved an effective way for cycle manufacturers to market their products to the broad public. An early example was the 1891 race from Paris to Brest and back, won by the veteran Charles Terront, who showcased the latest Michelin clincher tires.

Although bicycles remained relatively expensive during the boom, costing perhaps several months' worth of wages, the pastime was already cutting across class lines. The sheer prominence of cyclists, the pervasive press coverage of all things cycle-related, and the increasing willingness of dealers to extend credit, as well as the burgeoning secondhand market, all helped to popularize the sport. Moreover, shortly after the boom subsided in 1897 the price of a bicycle plummeted from about seventy-five dollars to twenty-five dollars. Even as the upper classes and the leading bicycle makers began to turn their attention to the emerging automobile, the bicycle was already well established as an article of necessity. It was widely appreciated, especially in Europe, not only as a racing machine but also as a cheap and efficient vehicle for everyday commuting and weekend touring.

early twentieth century

Although the American bicycle industry all but collapsed after the boom, its European counterpart readjusted and thrived in the years leading up to World War I, a time when automobiles were still prohibitively expensive. Raleigh Cycle Company of Nottingham, England, became the world's leading bicycle maker and exporter, thanks to ever more efficient production lines. Germany and France were also major producers of bicycles and cycling accessories. Sturdier models with such practical concessions as freewheels, caliper brakes, soft seats, upright handlebars, and fenders helped to sustain a popular demand for utilitarian bicycles. Hub gears, originating in Britain, came on the market about 1903, followed by derailleur systems, developed primarily in France. The availability of multiple gears to handle diverse terrain enhanced the appeal of bicycle touring, especially among the middle classes.

The public, meanwhile, continued to follow competitive cycling. Velodromes continued to flourish in numerous European and American cities, hosting such popular events as the celebrated Six-Day race. Sprinters such as the African American Marshall "Major" Taylor enjoyed international fame. Road racing also became increasingly prevalent in Europe. The year 1903 marks the first Tour de France, sponsored by the journal Vélo-Auto. Originally it was composed of six stages, run day and night. The contest was later confined to daylight hours, but the format was extended to include multiple stages spanning two or three weeks and covering the most diverse terrain. The French public adored homegrown champions such as Lucien Petit-Breton, who in 1908 became the first to win a second title. But the Tour quickly assumed an international flavor as well, with several early champions hailing from Belgium and Luxembourg. Italy was also quick to adopt road racing, launching its own version of the Tour in 1909 called the Giro d'Italia, and establishing its own prewar heroes such as Costante Giradengo, a perennial national champion.

See alsoPopular and Elite Culture; Sports.

bibliography

Herlihy, David V. Bicycle: The History. New Haven, Conn., 2004.

Lloyd-Jones, Roger, and M. J. Lewis, with the assistance of Mark Eason. Raleigh and the British Bicycle Industry: An Economic and Business History, 1870–1960. Aldershot, Hants, U.K., and Brookfield, Vt., 2000.

McGurn, James. On Your Bicycle: An Illustrated History of Cycling. New York, 1987.

Startt, James. Tour de France, Tour de Force: A Visual History of the World's Greatest Bicycle Race. Updated and revised edition. San Francisco, 2003.

Vant, André. L'industrie du cycle dans la région stéphanoise. Lyon, 1993.

David V. Herlihy