Kyrgyzstan

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Kyrgyz Republic
Region:	East & South Asia
Population:	4,685,230
Language(s):	Kirghiz (Kyrgyz), Russian
Literacy Rate:	97%
Academic Year:	September-May
Number of Primary Schools:	1,885
Compulsory Schooling:	10 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	5.3%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	125
Libraries:	1,001
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 473,077
	Secondary: 530,854
	Higher: 49,744
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 104%
	Secondary: 79%
Teachers:	Primary: 24,086
	Secondary: 42,286
	Higher: 3,691
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 20:1
	Secondary: 13:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 103%
	Secondary: 83%

History & Background

The Republic of Kyrgyzstan is a small, mountainous, landlocked country in Central Asia approximately the size of the U.S. state of South Dakota and with a population in 1999 of 4.8 million inhabitants. Bordered by China in the east, Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan in the west, and Tajikistan in the south, it was one of the smaller, more obscure constituent republics of the former Soviet Union when it declared its independence on 1 January 1991.

Kyrgyzstan gets its name from its largest ethnic group, the Kyrgyz. Originally a group of nomadic peoples from the southern Siberian steppes, they migrated south between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries into modern day Kyrgyzstan. As a nomadic people, the Kyrgyz did not possess a written language until it was transcribed around 1862, using the Cyrillic alphabet. This period also saw the beginning of Russian colonization of Kyrgyzstan, a migration that today has resulted in a significant number of ethnic Russians living in Kyrgyzstan. When the Kyrgyz arrived in present day Kyrgyzstan, they encountered a sedentary people in the flatter more southerly areas, the Uzbeks. Thus today the country is made up of 65 percent Kyrgyz, 12 percent Russian, and 13 percent Uzbeks with a very small number (less than 1 percent) of Tadjiks, Ukrainians, Koreans, and Jewish ethnic minorities. This breakdown, however, conceals regional differences whereby Russians are concentrated in the major cities, Uzbeks constitute a majority in the south, and ethnic Kyrgyz are predominant in the more mountainous and rural areas.

Russian presence and influence in Kyrgyzstan was particularly significant following the Russian revolution of 1917-1918. At this time central Russian control was exercised by the placement of Russians in positions of authority. Moreover, the educational system for the 70 years of Soviet control was based exclusively on the Russian/Soviet model of Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy, a system that today is generally being replaced by a more western capitalist model and curriculum. Therefore, understanding the Kyrgyz educational system invariably involves an understanding of the Soviet system that it replaced and the changes in the external and internal educational environments that have occurred since 1990. In addition to this environment is the emergence in certain parts of the country, particularly the south, of an Islamic system of schooling. This reflects both that the Kyrgyz and southern Uzbeks and Tadjiks are followers of Islam and that religion is a force in the cultural base. Thus there is a rise in Islam as a force in education in the country.

The period of Soviet control was particularly marked in Kyrgyzstan by a rise in literacy. In 1926, at the time of the first Soviet census, there were 65,636 males in the Kyrgyz Socialist Soviet Republic, and 30,846 were literate; there were 63,430 females, and 13,936 were literate. In the census of 1989, just before the collapse of the Soviet Union, only 3 percent of the population (males 1.4 percent and females 4.5 percent) was considered illiterate.

With limited natural resources, a lack of internationally competitive industries, and a landlocked status, Kyrgyzstan has had some difficulty adjusting to a privatized, market economy. It is generally agreed that the process of economic and political transition has been one of the more successful of the former Soviet Republics, but not without significant economic hardship to the people. This hardship has dramatically affected the educational system.

In the years since independence, the other major issue within the new nation that has affected the educational system has been the search for and establishment of a Kyrgyz national identity, along with its resultant impact on the Russian, Uzbek, and other minorities. As a result of measures to establish a Kyrgyz identity, many Russians have emigrated from Kyrgyzstan while those who remain have perceived an erosion of their cultural identity as a result of preferential treatment for Kyrgyz cultural elements. This is important, as Russians formerly held the most important positions in technology, trade, and education. The loss of some 300,000 highly educated Russians in the last 10 years has significantly affected the administrative and educational functions in the country. In an attempt to offset these perceptions, the government has made Russian an official language along with Kyrgyz, established a Slavic university, and appointed prominent ethnic Russians to key government positions. Perhaps more problematic has been the resolution of the issue of Islamic fundamentalism. While Kyrgyzstan is an avowed secular state with Islam the predominant religion, its government has been required to address the incursion of Islamic separatist armed rebels into southern parts of the country, which in turn has diverted public funds to the military that might have gone toward education.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Constitutional Provisions & Laws Affecting Education: Universal free education in Kyrgyzstan was first enshrined in the USSR constitution in the 1970s. It provided for state-subsidized education for all with the goal of 100 percent literacy.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the government wrote and adopted on the 12 May 1993 a constitution for the new nation. Article 32 in the constitution reads:

• Every citizen of the Kyrgyz Republic shall have the right to an education.
• General secondary education shall be compulsory and free of charge, and everyone shall be entitled to receive it in the state educational institutions.
• The state shall provide for the vocational, special secondary, and higher education for every person in accordance with individual aptitude.
• Paid education for citizens at national and other educational institutions shall be allowed on the basis of and in the procedure established by the legislation.
• The state shall exercise control over the activity of educational institutions.

By also including in Article 16 of the constitution the recognition and guarantees of other human rights, Kyrgyzstan became party to other treaties that affect education, such as discrimination against women, social rights, and the rights of children—all of which have major education provisions.

Upon independence, education was one of the first areas of social concern to be addressed. The Kyrgyz Republic's education law, enacted in 1992, has essentially governed the post-Soviet system of education.

In 1996, policy measures to implement the 1992 law on education were expanded in a national education program called "Bilim." These measures were to guide education development up to the year 2000. The policy addressed the issues of basic necessities (reading, writing, and problem solving), educational content (knowledge, values, and views), and the role of education in quality of life, decision-making, and educational goals. It is necessary to see "Bilim" as a response to what was perceived as a deteriorating system of education and the measures necessary for the government to take to stop this erosion in quality and accessibility. "Bilim" was essentially the policy framework under which Kyrgyzstan's educational system operated between 1996 and 2000, but various supplementary programs have also been introduced addressing such issues as access, educational response to rising poverty levels, international assistance, specialization in education, and bringing technology into the classroom.

In 1997 the Education Law of 1992 was amended to allow individual institutions to determine their own educational system and their own curriculum within set national funding amounts, standards, and curriculum guidelines. Essentially the system of higher education reflected item four of the constitution by becoming more fee-based and attempting to become more responsive to market demands.

Educational Philosophies: There were three dramatic changes in educational philosophy in Kyrgyzstan in the 1990s. The first paradigm shift was the move from a repetitive, rote learning educational philosophy to more problem-oriented critical thinking. The second was the attempt to offset declining literacy rates and school attendance with a program called "Education for All." This mobilized not only education professionals but also other government agencies, particularly social service agencies, and enlisted the assistance of a wide range of NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) and international aid agencies to combat the adverse effects on the school system of economic and social transition. The third is the movement toward a more national Kyrgyz identity that of necessity starts in the school system.

Educational System—Overview

Compulsory Education & Age Limits: In 1996 Kyrgyzstan had a school age population of 674,000, which was up from 651,000 just 6 years earlier. Education is compulsory for 9 years, comprising 4 years in a primary school from age 6 through 10, followed by secondary school for 5 years up to the age of 15. At this point students can leave school or continue their studies in either an upper secondary school, a specialized secondary school, or a technical/vocational school. At 18 years of age, further education is conducted within the university system.

Academic Year: The academic year begins 1 September or as close to it as possible, and end of year exams are usually over by early June. Attestats (the graduation transcripts) are issued on 22 June and is usually the final event of the school year. The university year usually ends in May.

Enrollment: In 1995 enrollment in primary schools was 97 percent of the relevant age group; enrollment figures for compulsory secondary school are unknown, but in 1996 the gross enrollment percentage was 79 percent, which was down from a reported 100 percent in 1990. Thus it appears that as children get older they are increasingly not attending school but working to offset economic hardship in the family. Testament to this fact is that in 1996 enrollment for males (75 percent) was less than for females (83 percent). This suggests that the collapse of the Soviet Union has affected school enrollments.

Females & Minority Enrollments: Unlike many nations, Kyrgyzstan has full equality in education as a legacy of both the Soviet system and the new Kyrgyz constitution. In fact, the need for boys to assist in farm labor and periodic markets (bazaars ) means girls have a better attendance record than boys. Females make up 51 percent of primary school children, 55 percent of secondary school children, and 52 percent of university students Females also have a dominant role in the management of the educational system in Kyrgyzstan. The majority of teachers are female. Indeed, in 2001 Kyrgyzstan had an ethnic Kyrgyz female Minister of Education, Camilla Sharshekeeva. Similarly, the compulsory and universal access to education has meant that education for ethnic minorities has not been an issue at the primary and secondary level. The imposition of Kyrgyz nationalism within the educational system was a major driving force behind the establishment of a Slavonic University in 1993 to cater to the ethnic Slavic population in Kyrgyzstan.

Language of Instruction: In 1998, a total of 65.7 percent of primary and secondary schools taught in Kyrgyz, 6.9 percent in Russian, 20.1 percent mixed (Russian and Kyrgyz), 7.2 percent in Uzbek, and 0.3 percent in Tadjik. These figures indicate a rise in Kyrgyz instruction and a significant diminution (down 15 percent) in Russian in a 5 year period. In addition, of the 207 schools built between 1993 and 1998, some 138 were schools in which instruction is only in the Kyrgyz language. These percentages also reflect regional distribution of the ethnic groups within Kyrgyzstan, with most rural schools in the north and east teaching in Kyrgyz, while in the south, in the Fergana Valley, Uzbek and Tadjik are the preferred languages of instruction. The fact that prospective teachers attend and graduate from regional institutions of higher education in their own ethnic regions would seem to perpetrate this distribution.

In contrast, at institutes of higher education, Russian predominates as the language of instruction. This is due in part to the ready availability of Russian texts as opposed to Kyrgyz language texts. In 1993-1994, 64.6 percent of university students were taught in Russian, 34.7 percent in Kyrgyz, and 0.7 percent in Uzbek.

Examinations: Students are examined at the end of every semester with the summer examination determining whether the student advances to the next grade. Examinations at the end of secondary school are partly used as university entrance examinations. These are in conjunction with examinations set by the individual university for the field of study that the aspiring student wishes to enter. A national testing system was also introduced in 1993, but suspicion and distrust of the motives behind it has hampered its use as a barometer of success.

Grading System: Grading is done by individual teachers and professors. They enter grades into an official book, called unofficially by its Russian name of Zachotka, which the student will carry to prospective employers. It is common practice in Kyrgyzstan and throughout the former Soviet Union for teachers and university professors to accept payment to inflate student grades. This is directly attributable to the low salaries of the teaching staff. In addition, the institution is usually prepared to change student grades in order to place students in employment positions that will reflect favorably on the institution.

Private Schools: A large number of private schools commenced teaching in Kyrgyzstan following the breakup of the Soviet Union. All operate on a fee basis but often with outside sources subsidizing the institution. The most numerous are so-called gymnasiums, lyceums, innovation schools, and the purely private institutions. The 94 gymnasiums cater to 46,000 pupils, the 70 Lyceums to 19,700 pupils, and the 344 innovative schools to 109,000 pupils. The latter primarily target gifted children. In 1999, there were approximately 25 institutions totally supported by private funds. Most (20) are aimed at secondary school students and reflect efforts by ethnic minorities to preserve their culture. Hence Korean, Jewish, and Tatar associations provide some private schooling for their ethnic minorities, while evangelical church groups have been active in establishing church schools in Kyrgyzstan. Most visible have been privately funded Turkish educational establishments, particularly in higher education where the establishment in 1998 of a Turkish university was a major addition to higher education options.

Religious Schools: The revival of Islam in a formerly avowed atheist state has been marked by a rise, albeit small, in religious schools. At present, theological students study in such countries as Saudi Arabia and Turkey and return to small institutions attached to the mosque (Medressahs ). The curriculum is heavily dependant on learning from the Koran as opposed to general theological studies.

Instructional Technology (Computers): There is a serious lack of computers not only in the schools of Kyrgyzstan but also the country as a whole. It is estimated that fewer than 10 percent of the schools have computers. Most of the specialized institutions of higher education have computer labs working with donated and purchased computers, but state institutions, particularly in the outlying cities, have a serious lack of computers for instructional technology. In addition, the computers that are in existence are often dated and unable to accommodate technological advancements. In particular, the Internet is highly restricted and difficult to access consistently.

Textbooks—Publication & Adoption: Severe budget difficulties have meant that new textbooks have not been produced or purchased. Moreover, most of the textbooks in Kyrgyzstan originated in Russia and are therefore in the Russian language. Kyrgyz educational authorities are aware that textbooks that reflect the change in the political and economic spheres are available, but access is highly problematic because of their cost. For example, in 1998, of 72 books that were to be published, only 25 were produced, with a circulation of 553,000 copies. Ministry data indicate a set of texts for the first year of schooling cost 160 soms per student, 220 soms for fifth year students, and 430 soms for the graduating class—more than a teacher's monthly salary (US$10 equals approximately 500 soms). Thus, access to English language texts is even more restricted. Most libraries have some donated English language texts, but relevance to the curriculum is coincidental if at all.

Audiovisuals: There is a serious deficiency in audiovisual services in classrooms at all levels. In large part this is a legacy of the Soviet pedagogical method of instruction by lecture. The severe budget restrictions since the collapse of the Soviet Union has further limited the use of audiovisual materials as modern teaching aids.

Curriculum—Development: There have been attempts to change the school curriculum since the fall of the Soviet Union to reflect new political and educational philosophies. At the primary level there has been a strong movement to introduce more Kyrgyz culture into the school curriculum, particularly Kyrgyz language study and a focus on Kyrgyz history and culture (art, music, and literature). At higher levels there is continued emphasis on Kyrgyz subjects with more intensive mathematics and the sciences. In addition, health awareness and sex education have entered the curriculum. A major impediment to the application of new curriculum materials is the slow movement away from the former Marxist-Leninist rubric, which is in large part owing to an aging teacher population unfamiliar with western educational subjects and systems. Thus one will still find economics classes that use statist and interventionist models as opposed to models of free market economics, private entrepreneurship, and western management systems. Teacher retraining has been a major focus of the state, and in 1992 the Kyrgyz Institute of Education, a major training institution, opened a retraining department. In Osh, the second largest city, a Skills Improvement Institute for practicing teachers has also enjoyed some success.

Foreign Influences on Educational System: Kyrgyzstan has been the recipient of significant foreign aid since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and education has been the beneficiary of much of this aid. The United States, through U.S. AID programs and U.S. Information Agency programs, has contributed significantly to educational development. Peace Corps volunteers have been especially active in teaching English in both urban and rural schools. Fulbright and MacArthur fellows, through the U.S. Department of Education, have been active in exchanges in higher education, particularly in the Kyrgyz-American School in Bishkek. Universities in the United States and Europe have established affiliations with a number of Kyrgyz universities. For example, Portland State University in Oregon established a link with Osh State University in the early years of independence; this has expanded to create a number of centers, including one for business. The Kyrgyz-American University has links with a consortium of Indiana universities, George Washington University, and Brown University. Private sector assistance through the Soros Foundation has been active in Bishkek, and those western businesses with a significant presence in Kyrgyzstan have generously supported Kyrgyz students and institutions. Turkish aid, in the form of a new university, has also been a marked part of foreign influence on education.

Role of Education in Development: More than 1.1 million persons are employed in Kyrgzy education, making it the most significant employer in the country. Moreover, education has been touted as a major path to bring Kyrgyzstan into the world economy. However, the educational system has regressed considerably since the days of high literacy rates and technological achievements of the Soviet era. The reasons for this are readily apparent: lack of funding for teachers, equipment, and buildings; a movement out of the country of the best and brightest graduates; and corruption at all levels.

Preprimary & Primary Education

General Survey: Before 1990, Kyrgyzstan had an extensive system of kindergartens that provided preschool care from the age of one year up to the time children started primary school. This system was state run and an excellent preparation for school system entry. Mass privatization and the divesting of kindergarten facilities by the state and the new private enterprises has led to a massive reduction in the number of preschool facilities. In 1990 there were 16,976 such institutions, whereas by 1996 the number had dropped to 449. Moreover, many had become private and were unable or not prepared to deliver preschool educational programs. In 1995-1996, 35,254 students were enrolled in preprimary institutions with 4,013 teachers. The Ministry of Education believes that this sector has suffered the most as a result of the change to a market economy.

In 1995-1996 there were 1,885 primary schools with 473,077 students being taught by 24,086 teachers, a ratio of 19 to 1. By 1998 the number of teachers had dropped to 19,122, of which fewer than 50 percent had a higher education. It is also believed that enrollment in primary schools is declining, particularly in rural areas where the need for child labor to help with farm and home chores to subsidize the family income is more important than schooling. Moreover, the amalgamation of some classes in primary schools as a result of unpaid teachers leaving the profession is contributing to this problem.

Urban & Rural Schools: Notwithstanding the difficulties in the school system, there were no school closures between 1990 and 2000, and enrollments increased as a result of high birth rates. By 1999 there were 1,939 schools in Kyrgyzstan, 1,614 of them in rural areas. However, as was noted above, rural primary schools seem to be suffering more than urban schools from the economic woes of the country. Class sizes are bigger than in urban schools as a result of class amalgamation, and, where high birth rates exceed capacity, schools operate in shifts. Indeed, seven schools offer evening classes to accommodate students who are unable to attend during the day. The physical condition of the schools in Kyrgyzstan is a significant problem. Many rural school buildings had no hot water or indoor toilet facilities, even in Soviet times, and since 1990 conditions have further deteriorated. Many need repair and refurbishment. City governments are wealthier than rural governments, hence urban school buildings are in better repair with utilities less disrupted and thus more conducive to teaching.

Teachers: Most rural teachers are women, usually trained at the local regional institute and teaching in a former collective school building. Teaching conditions are difficult and taxing; salaries are often absent, delayed, or only partially paid. The average monthly salary in 2001 was approximately 500 soms or US$10. Many continue to teach because, as some say, "We have nothing else to do, and it is our duty." In urban areas conditions are somewhat better, with more of a guarantee of salary and greater access to equipment and supplies.

Dropouts & Repeaters: In 1997 school authorities perceived that the decline in school attendance was becoming a serious problem. In particular it appeared that refugees from Tajikistan, as well as Kyrgyz peoples migrating from the predominantly Uzbek southern region, were moving into those regions near the capital city of Bishkek and not attending school. In 1997, a total of 8,588 children did not attend school; of these, 945 were primary school children. As a result of government action (providing school meals, clothing, and free transportation to school), the overall figure was reduced to 5,074 in 1998, but the number of primary school children not in school had risen to 2,287. The large reduction in dropouts had been achieved by reducing secondary school dropouts. The government is collecting detailed data on why these 5,074 students did not attend school, an important step in further reducing this number. The number of students repeating grades is not available, but there is anecdotal evidence that students can and do repeat. This number has been increasing as students dropout and are reinstated.

Secondary Education

General Survey: The drop in the number of teachers throughout the Kyrgyz Republic has been particularly marked in the secondary schools. In 1995 there were 38,915 secondary school teachers, but by 1998 this figure had fallen to 35,254. In 1995 there were 498,849 students.

Curriculum—Examinations & Diplomas: The most important diploma a student obtains is his or her Secondary School Certificate (Attectat o srednem obrazzovanii ), which is necessary for entering higher education or a profession.

Teachers: Of the 35,235 teachers in the secondary schools, 87 percent have received a college education. Secondary school teachers tend to teach specialized subjects (9,434 of the 35,235 in 1998), such as music, physical education, the sciences, and art. With the falling number of teachers and the rising birth rate, class sizes are invariably increasing.

Dropouts & Repeaters: As in the primary schools, absent students were a worrisome feature of secondary schools in 1997. That year, 2,517 secondary school pupils were reported as having dropped out of school, the second largest age group of non-attending students in Kyrgyzstan (3,276 had never attended school). In 1998 this figure was reduced to 783. In the higher secondary schools, 1,850 students dropped out in 1997, but only 1,187 in 1998. Overall, dropout rates are low. Graduation rates are high with an average 853 pupils graduating per 1,000 students.

Vocational Education: As was noted earlier, upon completing the lower level of secondary education at the age of 15, a student can continue in the secondary school, attend a specialized secondary school, or begin specialized technical or vocational study. In 1996 there were 32,005 students in Kyrgyzstan's 115 vocational schools with 3,371 teachers teaching 350 subjects.

Nonformal Education: Private tutoring of students exists in Kyrgyzstan primarily for the purpose of passing examinations or improving language skills and for English.

Higher Education

Types—Public & Private: Until 1990, the only university in Kyrgyzstan was Kyrgyz State University in the capital, Bishkek. However, in regional centers around the country, a large number of institutes affiliated with Kyrgyz State University offered a wide range of subjects and degrees upon graduation. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyz State University still exists, but the former institutes have invariably been transformed by title and courses into universities. Thus, for example, the Osh Pedagogical Institute founded primarily for linguistic study in 1951 was renamed Osh State University in 1992 and offers programs in business. The major change within higher education since 1990 has been the need to charge admission or tuition fees, in part to offset diminishing government subsidies.

Admission Procedures: Admission commences in the summer preceding September entry. Most institutions require an application form with particulars of the student's secondary or vocational record. Institutions that specialize in English subjects or teach in English may require TOEFL tests. In July, universities offer entrance exams, which are derived by the universities, and grant or deny entry based on the results.

Administration: Institutions administer themselves, with oversight by the State, which grants a license that reads:

University: has the right to practice teaching activity in the sphere of high professional education with a variety of majors, levels of education, duration according to the attachment of this license and on terms of considering all the basic requirements of this document and limited contingent of students.

Enrollment: In 1995 there were 33 institutes of higher education in Kyrgyzstan serving 49,744 students. The most significant are Kyrgyz State University with 15 faculties and 7,300 students; the Kyrgyz-Slavonic University; the Kyrgyz Technical University with 7 schools; the Kyrgyz Humanities University with 3,873 students; the new Manas Kyrgyz-Turkish University with 750 students in 2000 (its third year of operation); and the Kyrgyz-American School with more than 1,000 students.

Teaching Styles & Techniques: The principal language of instruction in these institutions is Russian, but with the proliferation of higher education institutions in Kyrgyzstan, instructors use a wider variety of source material.

Finance (Tuition Costs): Typical tuition fees at private universities range from $1,500 for Kyrgyzstan nationals to $2,000 for foreign students, but fees for Kyrgyz State University and other public universities are significantly lower, about 5,000 to 10,000 soms (US$100 to US$200) per annum. Scholarships in the form of fee waivers are available at most institutions to deserving students. Only Manas Kyrgyz-Turkish University has no fee structure.

Courses, Semesters, & Diplomas: Higher education in Kyrgyzstan usually lasts five years; the two-semester system commences in September and ends in May with a one month winter recess. As was noted earlier, institutions generally select the courses they wish to offer, and students graduate with a "Diploma of (Specialization in the field of study)." Students can pursue a "Candidate of the Sciences" for a further three years, during which they usually write a thesis and finally may obtain a doctoral degree, which requires another thesis. This last tends to be synonymous with postgraduate training.

Professional Education: The only professional education in the republic is offered by western-owned businesses to train their workers and managers. Most of this training is done "in-house," but there have been instances of workers being sent out of the country for professional development. A part of the U.S. AID monies of the mid-1990s was dedicated to middle management training, particularly for lawyers and government officials who, after a month overseas, returned to Kyrgyzstan to participate in privatization and democratization.

Postgraduate Training: There is a long history in Kyrgyz institutes of post-graduate teaching, which was usually linked with the award of the doctorate. Of necessity, this training is highly specialized and is found in institutes established under the Soviet system to produce an intellectual elite.

Foreign Students: Very few foreign students study in Kyrgyzstan, due almost entirely to the deteriorating state of the country's educational system. Typical of the extent of foreign student enrollment was Kyrgyz Humanities University and Osh State University with 44 foreign students (or 1.1 percent of total student enrollment) and 200 foreign students (3.3 percent) respectively in 1998.

Students Abroad: Given the difficulty of transition and the uncertain future of the nation, an ability to speak a foreign language—particularly English—with the resultant opportunities to study abroad, has become a major goal for students in higher education. Unfortunately, once students complete their studies overseas, they are often reluctant to return to Kyrgyzstan to become part of the labor force. Essentially a brain drain is occurring, and although it is on a small scale, it is enough to warrant concern. In 2001 there were 126 Kyrgyz students in the United States and fewer in Europe, with the majority of these in the United Kingdom. The major deterrent for Kyrgyz students to studying abroad is the high cost of tuition and living expenses outside Kyrgyzstan; hence most students studying outside Kyrgyzstan are on some kind of scholarship. Those few students whose studies abroad are funded with Kyrgyz money are required to return to Kyrgyzstan for a minimum of two years; however, often upon graduation, these students remain outside Kyrgyzstan to work.

Role of Libraries: Libraries have a reduced role in higher education primarily because they lack current books, texts, and periodicals. Much of the literature published before 1990 is considered by students and faculty alike to be tainted and hence of little use.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Government Educational Agencies: There are essentially two levels of educational responsibility in Kyrgyzstan. At the local level, administrative bodies (Village, Rayon, and Oblast councils) are responsible for school provision, maintenance, and teaching materials, including teachers. At the state level the Ministry of Education sets the curriculum for all primary and secondary public schools, while institutions of higher education set their own curriculum within limits set by the state. Control over education policy is exercised by the state through the financing, certifying, and licensing of education. In reality the severe economic hardships that have beset rural areas since 1990 have required significant state intervention in the running of local schools. This is particularly significant in the area of teacher salaries, whereby the state has been required to assume payment because rural agencies have no money to pay salaries. Moreover, in recent years, unlicensed educational establishments have arisen and are functioning, and the state is desirous of bringing these institutions into the state system.

Ministry of Education: Day to day responsibility for state education resides in the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, based in Bishkek. This ministry also collects data for baseline reference and applied research.

Educational Budgets: Notwithstanding the rise of private funding in the post-Soviet years, state budgeting is still the primary source of funds. Kyrgyzstan's gross domestic product was $1.3 billion in 2000, of which education contributed approximately 4 percent.

In 2000, some 2.3 billion soms (US$47 million) were spent on education. This is 3.3 percent of the gross domestic product, which is less than in 1990 when it accounted for 8 percent.

Education spending in 2000 represented 20.1 percent of all government expenditures, which was second only to that of the large category of government administration, military, and pensions. In 1991 and 1997, government expenditures on education were 23 and 22.6 percent, respectively. Notwithstanding the government's commitment to funding education, it is apparent that not only is education spending falling, but also that current allotments are inadequate to cover education needs. In addition, inflation has significantly eroded the purchasing power of these expenditures over the years.

Types of Expenditures: Notwithstanding the fall in preprimary schools, preprimary education in 1996 consumed 6 percent of the national education budget; 68 percent was directed to secondary schools and 14 percent to tertiary schools. The government believes funding for universities is still too high and that the priority for expenditure should lie in the primary and preprimary schools.

National Education Organizations: There are no national education organizations in Kyrgyzstan. Oversight is delivered in part by international organizations such as UNESCO and the United Nations Development Program.

Nonformal Education

Adult Education: Adult education has been recognized as a priority in the republic in order for adults to adjust to the new socioeconomic system. However, requiring students or businesses to pay for this learning seems to be a major obstacle to its success in difficult economic times. Foreign languages, bookkeeping and accounting, marketing and market economics, management, and computer literacy have been identified as priorities. External NGOs, such as Carana Corporation, have provided such training, but few business establishments offer these programs at present.

Open Universities & Distance Education: Open university does not exist in Kyrgyzstan. Distance learning is possible through existing universities in the form of correspondence courses called externat, but these are supplementary to the universities' normal in-residence structure. Students studying by correspondence courses with major universities make up a significant part of the part time student body. In 1998, Kyrgyz State University had approximately 6,000 students in correspondence courses along with the 7,300 students in residence, while at Osh State University more than 200 students take correspondence courses. There are no distance education courses delivered through television, radio, or the Internet because of the scarcity of such media in Kyrgyzstan.

Teaching Profession

Training & Qualifications: Thirteen higher education institutions offer teacher training, along with four dedicated teacher training colleges. Prospective teachers attend these institutions for five years before graduating. In 1999 teacher training colleges enrolled 14,000 students, and each year the nation graduates 1,000 to 1,500 new teachers. In view of the high birth rates, this number is insufficient to meet the demand. Moreover, the loss of teachers, particularly in rural areas where demand is highest, is cause for concern. Finally, there is a shortage of teachers in English, Kyrgyz, mathematics, and all the sciences.

Salaries: The average teacher salary has increased every year since 1990 but is grossly inadequate both in purchasing power and in its ability to keep up with inflation. It remains one of the most problematic areas of Kyrgyzstan's educational system. In 1993 the average monthly salary was 100 soms; in 1996, 230 soms; 1998, 315 soms; 1999, 385 soms; and, as earlier stated, in 2000, 500 soms. (In 2000, US$1.00 equaled 48 soms). However encouraging these salary increases are, they should be seen in light of the official Kyrgyzstan figure for minimum living expenses of 1,280 soms per person per month. Finally and sadly, these figures do not indicate that, owing to significant cash flow problems in state and local governments, teacher salaries are often delayed as long as six months or not paid at all.

Unions & Associations: There are no teachers' unions or associations in Kyrgyzstan.

Summary

The Kyrgyz educational system faces significant challenges. Once a model of literacy, availability, and accomplishment, it has been eroded by external environmental problems and a difficult adjustment to a necessary internal structural change. The principal challenges appear to be:

• The grave economic situation, which causes students, especially boys, to forgo school to attend to help support their families.
• The apparent inability of the central government to adequately fund education and in particular to pay public school teachers a living wage.
• The need for curriculum change to reflect the new, market-driven, privatized economy.
• The widespread corruption and associated grade inflation at all levels of the educational system.
• An increasing birth rate, particularly in the rural areas, that will add pressure to the educational system.

The former Soviet republics enjoyed a period of significant western interest in their transition for most of the 1990's. It is unfortunate that since then, for whatever reason, interest has waned, yet the problems are still present. In the initial stages of transition, much of the interest involved the use of international programs as a means of assisting in the transition. However this interest has stabilized. Those programs that remain are heavily politicized or driven by religious interests.

It would therefore appear that the most significant changes required for Kyrgyzstan's educational system to stabilize would be for the country to enjoy economic stability and prosperity, from which education could take its place as a significant contributor to the country's viability. Unfortunately, most observers cannot see this kind of stabilization and growth occurring any time soon.

Bibliography

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International Association of Universities 1998. International Handbook of Universities. 15th ed. New York: Groves Dictionaries.

Natskomstat Kyrgyzskoy Respubliki (National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic). 1999 Census. Available from http://nsc.bishkek.su.

Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The Constitution of the Kyrgyz Republic. Available from http://www.kyrgyzstan.org.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Vsesoiuznaia perepis naseleniia 1926 goda. (Tsentral'nyy Statistcheskoye Upravleniye SSSR 56 vols.) 1926.

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United Nations Development Program (UNDP). United Nations Development Program in Kyrgyzstan. Available from http://www.undp.kg.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Education Forum's Assessment Report on Kyrgyzstan. Available at http://www2.unesco.org.

——. The Right to Education. World Education Report 2000. Paris: UNESCO.

—Richard W. Benfield