Jordan

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Jordan

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
Region:	Middle East
Population:	4,998,564
Language(s):	Arabic, English
Literacy Rate:	86.6%
Number of Primary Schools:	2,623
Compulsory Schooling:	9 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	6.8%
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 1,121,866
	Secondary: 155,008
	Higher: 112,959
Teachers:	Primary: 45,367
	Secondary: 9,300
	Higher: 5,275
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 25:1
	Secondary: 17:1

History & Background

Jordan is situated in the Middle East. It is bordered by Syria in the north, Iraq in the east, Saudi Arabia in the south, and Israel and the West Bank in the west. Its territory extends over 86 square kilometers. It became fully independent in 1946 and was founded as a hereditary constitutional monarchy. The estimated population of the country in 1999 was 4.7 million. The population is primarily homogenous; the Arabic language and the Islamic religion predominate throughout. The climate of the country varies from arid or semiarid regions in the east and south to regions in the north and west where there is adequate rainfall and a cooler climate.

Historically, Jordan is part of the Arab world and nations. As was the case with other nations in the region, Jordan was under Ottoman rule until 1918. In 1921, it was known as the Emirate of Transjordan. It remained an independent constitutional state under British rule until 1946, when it achieved complete independence and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Following the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, part of Palestine (the West Bank) became an integral part of the kingdom. Since the war of 1967, however, Israel has occupied the West Bank.

When the Ottomans ended their occupation, they left behind a traditional system of education, which was composed of three-year primary schools and four elementary schools offering six years of study. At that time, there were no intermediate or secondary schools. There were private Islamic schools (Kuttab ) and Christian missionary schools. After the emirate was created, an expansion program began, culminating in 1922 with 44 government schools employing 71 teachers and serving 3,316 students, of which 318 were female. By 1923, a secondary school was established in Salt; this was followed the same year by a program of curriculum unification and the establishment of the country's first Education Council, which was formed to choose teachers and supervisors. In 1926 this council was replaced by another council called the Consultative Council of Education.

In 1946-47, there were 77 government schools enrolling some 10,729 students who were taught by 214 teachers. At the time, the school budget amounted to 6.3 percent of the total budget of the government. The first Ministry of Education during the emirate period was established 24 September 1940. Under its leadership, an educational system was set up with an elementary school cycle (seven years), a secondary school cycle (four years), and a technical school cycle (two years). Government-supervised national examinations were required at the end of both the elementary and secondary school cycles.

In June 1952, the first School Ordinance was issued regulating the examination system, the role of school principals, and the methods to be used for recruiting and promoting school children.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

When Transjordan became an independent entity in 1946 a new constitution was written. Article 21 stated that "communities should have the right to establish and maintain their schools for the teaching of their own members, provided they conform to the general requirements prescribed by law." When the constitution was revised in 1952, Article 20 proclaimed that primary education was to be compulsory and free in the public schools and open to all nationals. According to the Ministry of Education, the general objectives of education are: building up citizens' belief in God and their affiliation to their country and nation, endowing them with human virtues and perfection, and fully developing their personalities in their various aspects—physical, mental, spiritual, emotional, and social.

These objectives are based on a philosophy of education that stems from the Jordanian Constitution, Arab-Islamic civilization, principles of the Great Arab Revolt, and the Jordanian national experience.

The aims of education and the procedures for attaining them, according to the Ministry of Education, are:

To abolish illiteracy and extend schooling by opening as many primary schools as will guarantee a free universal primary education.
To orient all schools towards practical ends, both by revising present curricula and by strengthening and multiplying vocational establishments.
To establish a limited number of secondary institutions in addition to the schools already in existence.
To improve the professional training of teachers in rural and urban schools; in particular, training institutions are required for rural teachers to insure that they remain in the villages and help in improving the community life.

The general law of education (No. 20), issued in 1955, required that all schools be placed under the Ministry of Education and that certain subjects become required in private schools—Arabic, history, geography, and civics. The language of instruction for these subjects was to be Arabic, and each course was to follow the respective syllabus issued by the MOE.

The most significant legislation on education was the Law of Education No. 16, enacted in 1964. This law dealt with the overall philosophy of education in Jordan, specifying the objectives of the compulsory cycle as well as those of secondary schools and educational institutions. Article 4 of the law presented the basic philosophy of education as follows:

To develop responsible citizens who believe in the basic principles of the constitution; the rights and the responsibilities of citizens; honesty and dedication to work; responsible behavior; and fruitful cooperation with others based on democratic relationships.
To develop an understanding of the natural, social, and cultural environment starting with the home and ending with the world as a whole. This objective should aim at understanding the environment, its problems, and its urgent needs, and developing, in the individual, a sense of responsibility to do his share in the betterment of the environment.
To develop pupils physically, socially, mentally, and emotionally, taking individual differences into consideration.
To raise the health standards—in both the individual and the group—through proper health information and the development of appropriate habits.
To raise the economic standards of the individual and the society and to increase the national income.
To develop such skills as effective communication, critical and creative thinking, logical reasoning, orderly thinking, the ability to use scientific methods of investigation, and the proper engagement of relationships with others.

Article 6 of the Law classified schools by establishment, financing, and control. Public, or government, schools were under the Ministry of Education or other ministries such as Health, Defense, or Social Welfare. Private schools might be either national or "foreign." National schools were those established and run by individual citizens or agencies. Foreign schools were those established and administered by non-Jordanians, either individuals or agencies. Schools of this type could be secular or religious.

One of the most important outcomes of the First National Conference for Education Development in 1987 was the issuance of the Provisional Education Act No. 27 in 1988. The most important aspects of this act were:

Classifying and identifying the philosophical bases and principles of education.
Developing the general objectives of education and educational cycles.
Expanding free compulsory education from 9 to 10 years.

The most significant law in recent years related to kindergarten, basic, and secondary education was Act No. 3 in 1994. This act regulates education and states educational philosophy, objectives, and policy, as well as the functions of the Ministry of Education. According to this act, the missions and responsibilities of the Ministry of Education include:

Establishing and administering public schools at all levels and supervising private schools.
Providing health and counseling services.
Encouraging educational research.
Enhancing educational relations inside the kingdom and with other Arab and Islamic countries.
Establishing adult education centers.
Furthering cultural and scientific development through libraries and museums, radio and television, lectures, clubs, societies, and appropriate magazines.

Regarding higher education, the most significant laws were:

The Higher Education Act No. 28, 1985, which stated the objectives of higher education and how they are achieved, instituted the Higher Education Council, and listed other factors that regulate the affairs of higher education institutions.
The Jordan Universities Law, No. 29, 1987, which listed the objectives of the university and established university councils, deans, and colleges.
The Private Universities Law, No. 19, 1989, which specified the responsibilities of the Higher Education Council toward the work of private universities.

Other means used in developing and implementing educational change have been the various educational development plans. The general goals of these plans are to improve the educational outcomes, cope with scientific and educational changes, respond to needs of the labor market, and interact with the international cultural developments.

The first stage in the current educational plan was from 1988 to 1995. The goals in this stage were:

Extend compulsory education to 10 years instead of 9 and reorganize secondary education into a comprehensive two-year program.
Lower the illiteracy rate to 8 percent by the year 2000.
Develop and expand vocational education and training.
Develop curriculum and textbooks.

The second stage was from 1996 to 2000. The goals in this stage were:

Improve the quality of educational leaders.
Supply schools with educational resources.
Develop vocational education and training to support the needs of the labor markets.
Improve facilities for teaching and learning through expanding and constructing new schools, reducing rented school buildings, and furnishing schools to accommodate more students.
Develop examinations to balance the content and goals of the new curricula.

Educational System—Overview

The present structure of the Jordanian educational system comprises formal and nonformal systems. The nonformal system includes preschool education, which is run by the private sector and enrolls children as young as age three. Literacy campaigns, home schooling, and vocational training administrated by the ministries of Labor, Industry, and Defense are also part of the nonformal education system.

The formal education system is composed of the following stages:

A compulsory stage for children ages 6 to 15 (grades 1-10), consisting of primary school (grades 1-6) and preparatory school (grades 7-10).
A comprehensive secondary education (academic and vocational) and applied secondary education (training centers and apprenticeship).
Higher education, either a two-year intermediate level course offered by community colleges or four years of university level courses, either in public or private institutions. The student's achievement on the General Secondary Education Certificate Examination is the sole criterion for admission into higher education institutes.

Children move up the educational ladder under a system of modified automatic promotion. Under this system, students in grades 4 through 10 may repeat a grade twice. After that they are automatically promoted. In the preparatory stage, grade repetition is allowed only once. At the secondary level, students are allowed to repeat once in a government school provided they are younger than 17; otherwise they must transfer to a private school.

Before 1975, all students were required to pass a public preparatory education examination to be admitted into secondary school. With the elimination of this exam, students are admitted into the secondary stage simply by passing their ninth grade end of the year examinations and on the basis of their class standing. The exam was reintroduced in 1985, but then cancelled in 1989.

Community colleges and universities vary in required attendance from two years in community colleges to six or more in universities based on the type of institution and specialization. For instance, the faculty or school of medicine requires six years. To be admitted into postsecondary institutions, students must pass the General Secondary School Certificate Examination or GSSCE (al Tawjehy ). Students in the vocational education program sit for the Vocational General Secondary Certificate Examination.

The majority of students are enrolled in schools directly controlled by the MOE. Some schools fall under the jurisdiction of the cultural bureau of the Ministry of Defense. The Ministry of Health oversees students studying for medical careers; it established the first nursing school in 1953-54.

Instruction is in Arabic, but English is introduced in public schools in the fifth grade and is widely used. A new policy was recently approved to start teaching English in the first grade beginning in the academic year 2001-02. The school year runs for 210 days from September to June. There are two semesters in the school year. Students attend schools five days a week, Sunday through Thursday. To pass from one grade to the next, students need to maintain adequate grade averages. The final grade of each student in each course is converted into a percentage. The minimum passing level in any subject is 50 percent. The universities or other postsecondary institutions also employ this grading system for individual courses. However, a student needs to have a 60 percent average in all courses combined to graduate.

All public schools and most private ones use the same textbooks. Under Law 16 of 1964, the School Curricula and Textbooks Division of the MOE is responsible for producing and printing the textbooks. They are distributed free of charge during the compulsory stage, but there is a nominal fee at the secondary stage.

Jordanian public schools are single sex schools. Some private schools allow for mixed classrooms. Jordanian classrooms, much like those in other capital-poor countries, are bare. Rows of chairs for students are positioned against a table from which the teacher talks while the students listen. This lack of facilities compounds education problems. As of 1979-80, for example, with the dramatic increase in enrollments, the MOE was forced to introduce a two shift school program in about 41 percent of the compulsory and secondary schools and to rent some buildings. In 1997, however, only 16 percent of students were attending two shift schools and 11 percent went to rented buildings.

Educational television was introduced on a limited scale in Jordan beginning in 1968. It provided programs for secondary schools, primarily in such fields as mathematics, the sciences, and English. In 1997, the MOE produced 30 programs for grades 1-5 and 36 programs for grades 5-7.

As a whole, education in Jordan is considered an investment in the future. Skilled citizens are necessary. Before the Gulf War, most graduates could find good jobs in the oil-rich countries, and the money they sent home helped the Jordanian economy to grow. It is not uncommon for a family living at subsistence level to be able to send a child to a university (Abu-Zeinh).

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preprimary Education: Preprimary education, organized for children beginning at age three years and eight months, aims to provide an adequate educational environment to help children acquire sound health habits, develop positive social relationships, foster positive attitudes towards school, and be prepared for a smooth transition from home to school.

Children's attendance at preschool classes is not compulsory. Enrollment in this cycle is 26 percent. Methods and activities in this cycle aim to promote the development of the child's personality. The Ministry of Education supervises all preschool institutions.

In the academic year 1997-98, the average pupil to teacher ratio at the preschool level was 20.7 to 1, and the average number of children per class was 23.6.

Virtually all preschool education is private, but under the supervision and control of the MOE. The aim of this type of education as stated in Article 8 of the Education Law of 1955 is "to guide children toward the correct habits and actions, to develop their abilities, to accustom them to discipline and to prepare them for entering the elementary school." Enrollment in preprimary schools has increased substantially. For example, during 1990, there were 44,856 children enrolled at 546 preschools; by 1998 the enrollment reached 69,425 at 932 schools. The number of teachers grew from 1,933 to 3,346. More than 99 percent of the teachers are female.

Primary Education: Basic education comprises 10 years of compulsory schooling, starting at the age of five years and eight months. Pupils are offered a basic and well-balanced education in the social, emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual aspects of their growth to create the basis for successful learning at higher forms of education and for continuous learning in life.

The aims of the compulsory education cycle as stated in Law 16 of 1964 include the development of the individual with respect to healthy attitudes, habits, and religious values and the cultivation of fundamental skills: "use of proper language, the arithmetic skills that are necessary for the daily life, observation and attentive listening, objectives and constructive criticism, and scientific ways of thinking." In addition, students should know about the environment and the Arab world, learn a foreign language, develop an appreciation of the fine arts, and learn to use leisure time effectively.

Basic education aims at preparing the learners to be able to (Ministry of Education 1998):

Be consciously acquainted with the history, principles, rules, and values of Islam and exemplify them in their character and behavior.
Master the basic skills of Arabic language to be able to use it easily.
Know the basic facts and events of history, especially that of Islamic and Arab nations and Jordan in particular.
Follow social behavior rules and take into account commendable social traditions, habits, and values.
Love, be proud of, and shoulder the responsibilities towards their homeland.
Be aware of the basic facts related to the natural environment, as well as Jordanian, Arabic, and international geography.
Love their family and society and shoulder the responsibilities towards them.
Master the basic skills of at least one foreign language.
Deal with numerical systems, basic mathematical processes, and geometrical figures and use them in everyday life.
Absorb basic scientific facts and generalizations and their experimental bases and use them to explain natural phenomena.
Think scientifically, using the process of observation, data collection, organization, analysis, deduction, and decision making.
Comprehend scientific bases of the forms of technology and use them properly.
Be keen on the safety, cleanliness, beauty, and wealth of their environment.
Be aware of the importance of their physical fitness and health and to practice suitable sport and health activities.
Have aesthetic taste in the various arts and express their own artistic interests.
Be able to perform handicraft skills matching their abilities and interests, make an effort to develop them, and have respect for manual work owing to its basic function in social life.
Exemplify diligence, persistence, and self-dependence in achievement.
Express their talents, special abilities, and creative aspects.
Accept and respect others, consider their feelings, and appreciate their merits and achievements.
Appreciate the value of time and make good use of their free time.
Strive for self-instruction and the development of their competencies.

The curriculum adopted in Jordanian basic education attempts to implement the above goals by focusing on Arabic, English, mathematics, and, to a lesser degree, general science. Islamic religion is also offered, along with music and anthems, arts education, physical education, vocational education, computer training, social and national education, and geography.

Enrollment rates in this cycle increased from 926,445 students in 1990-91 to 1,121,860 students in 1997-98. During the same time, the number of schools increased from 2,457 to 2,623. The gross enrollment ratio in this cycle is 95 percent, the average number of pupils per class is 30.4, and the average length of the teaching period is 45 minutes. In the academic year 1997-98, the average student to teacher ratio at the basic education level was 26 to 1.

Evaluating students is the responsibility of the teachers. Each semester there are three exams; each one counts for 15 percent of the student's grade. Participation counts for another 15 percent and the final exam, 40 percent. The school gives students certificates at the end of each academic year through the eleventh class (first year of secondary education), whereby the results of the first and second terms with the final average are all indicated. In addition, classifying students into the various types of secondary education is carried out according to their grades in grades 8 through 10.

Secondary Education

Secondary education consists of two years of study for students ages 16 to 18 who have completed the basic education cycle. As the students were provided with a broad-based, general education during the 10 years of basic education, secondary education is designed to prepare them for higher education or the labor market.

Students are admitted to secondary education according to their abilities and interests. They are provided with specialized cultural, scientific, and vocational experiences, which meet the existing and anticipated needs of society. Accordingly, secondary education is divided by category: comprehensive secondary education, which provides a general common cultural base to all students, in addition to specialized academic or vocational education, and applied secondary education, which provides vocational training and apprenticeship. According to the Ministry of Education (1998), secondary education in this context is intended to enhance the major cardinals of basic education and to prepare students to be able to:

Use the Arabic language to increase their ability to communicate, develop their scientific and literary culture, consider the fundamentals of correct language structure, and relish its arts.
Adapt to environmental changes in their country and their effects on the natural world, society, and culture; to exploit and maintain resources well; and to improve their potentials.
Derive their culture from their nation's heritage and to be aware of the necessity of conscious openness to world civilization and to contribute to it.
Interact with the cultural environment of their society and to try to develop it.
Be aware of the importance of family and its role in social life.
Consolidate their self-confidence with respect for the dignity and freedom of others.
Exemplify the principles, rules, and values of Islamic ideology in their behavior and understand the values and convictions in other heavenly religions.
Seek the progress, prestige, and pride of their country and be keen to participate in solving its problems and achieving security and stability.
Know the issues of their nation, be proud of belonging to it, and seek its unity and progress.
Work in a team, know the bases and forms of democracy and practice them in dealing with others, and believe in social justice principles.
Be aware of international issues and of the importance of international understanding and peace built on justice and right.
Perform their duties and adhere to their rights.
Master at least one foreign language.
Understand mathematical and logical concepts and relationships and use them in solving problems.
Look for data resources carefully and be able to collect, store, process, and benefit from them.
Understand new scientific facts and their applications, be able to verify them experimentally, and know their role in human progress.
Protect the environment, keep it clean, and develop its potentials and wealth.
Understand health information and rules pertaining to balanced physical and psychological growth and to practice them.
Relish artistic work and express their interests in this field through producing positive artistic works within their abilities.
Seek professional qualification, economic independence, and self-sufficiency.
Use their free time for practicing useful hobbies and recreational activities.
Reflect Arab, Islamic, and humanistic values in their behavior.
Use common sense in dialogue, tolerance in dealing, and courtesy in listening.
Develop themselves through self-learning and lifelong education.

In the academic year 1996-97, the average student to teacher ratio was 17 to 1 in the academic secondary education and 13.8 to 1 in vocational secondary education. Successful students at the end of the secondary cycle obtain the General Secondary Certificate, which includes the results of the General Secondary Examinations for the first and second terms, as well as their overall average.

Between 1995 and 1998, two-thirds of male students enrolled in academic secondary education and four-fifths of female students enrolled, perhaps because females had fewer options in vocational training than males.

Starting with the academic year 1996-97, one exam for the General Secondary Education Certificate at the end of the second term of the academic year was introduced. In addition, a project related to the development of the General Secondary Education Examinations, implemented in cooperation with the Scottish General Examinations Board, aims to measure several such skills as acquiring knowledge, solving problems, and finding facts in all subjects. Concerning foreign languages, the MOE plans to include skills related to reading, listening, and conversing, as well as writing. Supervisors and teachers will be trained for the new examinations, and the Ministry will issue specifications.

The comprehensive secondary school aims to prepare youth to enter institutions of higher education. The general secondary school provides two options—the literary and the scientific. Specialization or "streaming" takes place beginning in the eleventh grade and depends on prior academic achievement. High achievers in science and math usually follow the scientific stream. Twelve subjects are offered in the scientific stream and 14 in the literary. The subjects are classified general requirements, basic or essential subjects for the field—both compulsory and optional—and electives.

Vocational education is offered in six types of schools: commercial, industrial, agricultural, nursing, hotel services, and home economics. Each of these fields offers different subjects in the eleventh and twelfth grades. For example, the agricultural field course offers chemistry, biology, general agricultural sciences, and irrigation. During the school year 1997-98, there were 30,372 students in 322 such institutions. These students represented 43.2 percent of male students and 22.4 percent of female students enrolled in the secondary education.

Industrial secondary schools teach skills necessary for employment. The course work focuses on mathematics, physics, vocational safety, and specialized industrial sciences, in addition to courses in general education and knowledge.

Higher Education

The Jordanian higher education system offers options not always available in developing countries. These include a differentiated system of higher education institutions (universities and community colleges) and patterns of ownership (public and private) (World Bank 1996).

Higher education in Jordan started in 1951 with a one year postsecondary teacher training class. The first university program began in 1962 with the establishment of the University of Jordan.

Article 3 of the University Law of 1964 summarizes the formal functions of the universities as follows: to afford university study opportunities; to encourage scientific progress and serve the society; to provide the country with specialties in different fields; to pay special attention to the Arab-Islamic civilization and spread its heritage; to participate positively in international thought; and to strengthen cultural and scientific ties with other Arab and foreign universities and scientific organizations.

Higher education in Jordan is comprised of two levels. Two-year intermediate level programs at public or private community colleges offer about a hundred specializations distributed through 11 programs: academic, administrative, agricultural, applied arts, computer, educational, hotel management, meteorological, paramedical, social work, and engineering. Public and private universities offer a variety of four-year degree programs.

Pre-university reform in Jordan has yielded nearly universal access at the basic level and an enrollment rate close to 70 percent at the secondary level. Combined with the rapid population growth, this has created a strong demand for higher education. Twenty-three percent of 20 to 24 year olds (110,000) were enrolled in higher education in 1999; two-thirds of these attended public institutions. Enrollment in private universities has expanded from 1,300 in 1992 to more than 35,000 students in 2001.

Governance: The Ministry of Higher Education was established in 1985 with a mandate that included controlling the process of random pursuit of specializations by students and, rather, coordinating specializations with the development needs of the country. The 1998 Higher Education Law abolished the Ministry of Higher Education entirely.

Public universities are governed by the Law of Higher Education. Accordingly, each university should have a university council, deans council, faculty council, and departmental council. The current administrative organization in public universities is as follows:

Higher Education Council (HEC): Legislation governing higher education in Jordan was passed 6 April 1980. This marked the formation of a council that plans and coordinates higher education in Jordan and lays down its general policies. The HEC serves uniformly as a Board of Trustees for the Jordanian universities. This Council is chaired by the Minister of Higher Education and is charged with laying the foundations and defining the objectives of higher education and estimating needed manpower in the various fields of knowledge, including sending students for study outside Jordan.
University Council: University regulations state that each university should have a university council, chaired by the president. Its members are: all vice presidents; all deans; a member from each faculty elected by the faculty to serve for one year subject to renewal; the directors of two administrative units at the university, appointed by the president for one year; three members of different backgrounds from the local community, recommended by the president and appointed by the Higher Education Council for one year; one student, selected by the president, for one year; and one member from the university alumni, selected by the president, for one year. The university council is responsible for developing general policy for the university; evaluating university activities and examining the president's annual reports; strengthening the relationship between the university and the public and private sectors; looking into university regulations and plans; and preparing the budget for approval by the Higher Education Council.
Deans Council: The deans council is chaired by the university president. Its members include all vice presidents and deans and is responsible for appointing and promoting faculty members; approving faculty sabbaticals and other leaves of absence; and approving the curricula of the various faculties.
Faculty Council: The faculty council is chaired by the dean of the faculty. Its members are all vice deans; heads of all departments of the faculty; a representative from each department, elected by its faculty members for one year; and two experienced members of relevant experience to the functions of faculty, appointed by the president upon the recommendation of the dean, for one year and subject to renewal.
Departmental Council: Every academic staff member is a member of one of the departmental councils, which form the basic unit in the academic structure of the university. In the department, decisions are made with the participation of all members.

All university presidents must be of Jordanian nationality; they are nominated by the CEH and appointed by royal decree to a four year term, which is renewable once. Vice presidents and deans are nominated by presidents and appointed by the CEH. Vice presidents have three year terms, which are renewable once, and deans have two year terms, which are renewable once. Vice deans and department heads are nominated by deans and appointed by presidents to renewable one year terms.

There are two types of universities—public and private. The 10 public universities are, according to government policy, distributed throughout the country: Yarmouk University, Jordan University of Science and Technology, and Al-Elbeit University in the north; the University of Jordan, Hashemite University, Amman University College, Al-Dawa and Religion Principals College, and Al-Balqa University in the central region; and Mutah University and Al-Hussein University in the south. Al-Hussein is the newest university, established in 1999. Enrollments during the 1996-97 academic year ranged from 21,639 students at the University of Jordan to 654 at Al-Dawa College.

The 12 private universities are all in the northern and central regions where the population is dense. They are Amman Private University, Philadelphia University, Al-Isra University, Applied Sciences University, Jordanian Girls University (changed recently to Petra university), Al-Zeitunah University, Jerash Private University, Al Zarqa Private University, Irbid Private University, Educational Sciences College, Princess Sumayya University College, and Jordanian Academy for Music. Enrollments during the 1996-97 academic year ranged from 4,021 at Amman Private University to 49 at the Jordanian Academy for Music.

One of the recent changes in higher education is that Al-Balqa Applied University now supervises about 45 community colleges. There are four types of community colleges:

Twenty governmental community colleges that are under the umbrella of Al-Balqa University in all aspects—academic, administrative, and financial.
Eighteen private community colleges that are owned and run by the private sector under the technical supervision of Al-Balqa University.
Five Jordanian Armed Forces Colleges that are run by the Jordanian Armed Forces and technically supervised by Al-Balqa University.
Community colleges that are under the umbrella of the United Nations Relief and Work Agency for Palestinians Refugees (UNRWA) in all aspects—academic, administrative, and financial.

During the 1996-97 academic year, nearly 24,000 students were enrolled in community colleges of all types. In addition, during the 1995-96 academic year, 29,581 Jordanian students studied in higher education institutions abroad.

Admission for Undergraduate Studies: Students are admitted to all departments and faculties in public universities on the basis of their grades in the Tawjihi (The General Secondary School Certificate Examination or CSSC) or its equivalent. Admission is highly competitive, but students from the less privileged areas in the kingdom are accepted on the basis of a quota system, which allows the most competitive of them to be admitted relatively easily. A number of seats are allocated to the sons and daughters of those working in the armed forces, the Ministry of Education, and the national universities.

Application for enrollment in the university for the first semester is advertised during the first third of August every year. Names of students eligible for admission are published in local newspapers. Applications are sent by mail to the United Coordination Office for Admission to State Universities at the University of Jordan.

Applications for admission to university are accepted from students who have obtained the General Secondary Education Certificate (or its equivalent), provided that their average scored is not less than 85 for medicine and dentistry faculties, 80 for engineering and pharmacy faculties, or 65 for all the other faculties.

Applications for enrollment in the Department of Fine Arts specializations are advertised in local newspapers during the first half of August. These applications are to be made directly to the University Department of Admission and Registration. Names of students eligible for admission are published in local newspapers after they have passed the capacities test prescribed for that purpose.

Applications for enrollment made by Jordanian students who have obtained General Secondary Education Certificates outside of Jordan are to be directly made to the University Department of Admission and Registration within the period prescribed for submitting applications for enrollment to the United Coordination Office for Admission to Jordanian State Universities. Students shall be admitted in the light of the allocated seats and in accordance with the sequence of grades in the Jordanian General Certificate of Secondary Education or GCSC (or its equivalent).

Non-Jordanian students will be accepted through the Council of Higher Education.

The following documents are required from students to be considered for acceptance:

Original copy in Arabic of the Jordanian GSEC grade sheet certified by the Ministry of Education or, for students who have obtained a non-Jordanian GSEC, a photocopy certified by the Ministry.
Original birth certificate with the National Number inscribed thereon or a certified photocopy thereof.
A photocopy of the valid Family Card (for Jordanian students only).
Nationality confirmation certificate for non-Jordanian students.
Military Service book for male Jordanian Students.
Four personal photographs (4 centimeters x 6 centimeters).
Equivalence of the GSEC from the Jordanian Ministry of Education for students who have obtained a non-Jordanian GSEC.

The public universities follow the credit-hour system. Credit hours required for a bachelor's degree are as follows: Faculty of Arts, 126; Faculty of Business Administration, 126; Faculty of Science, 126; Faculty of Shari'a (Islamic Studies), 126; Faculty of Agriculture, 138; Faculty of Educational Sciences, 126; Faculty of Law, 126; Faculty of Physical Education, 126; and Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, 126.

The academic year consists of two main semesters. First semester classes start in the first week of October and end in January. Second semester classes start during the first half of February and end during the first half of June. In the optional summer session, classes start during the first half of July and end during the last third of August. Regular attendance is compulsory for all students at public universities.

Admission into Graduate Studies: Enrollment opportunities in the Graduate Studies Program are advertised in local newspapers during the last third of June. Applications are directly submitted to the University Deanship of Academic Research and Graduate Studies. Names of students eligible for admission are published in the local newspapers. Applications for the Diploma in Education are also directly submitted to the Department of Admission and Registration as advertised in local newspapers during the last third of June. Names of candidates eligible for enrollment are published in local newspapers. Non-Jordanian students are accepted through the Jordanian Council of Higher Education.

The following documents are required as part of an application for graduate studies:

Grade sheet of the bachelor's degree or, for doctoral candidates, the master's degree, duly certified.
The original university transcript or a duly certified photocopy thereof.
Original birth certificate or a duly certified photocopy thereof with the National Number inscribed thereon.
Duly certified photocopy of the Family Book (the first page and the student's legal guardian's page) with the National Number inscribed thereon.
Military Service Book or Exemption Certificate for Jordanian students required to serve in the military.
One personal photograph (4 centimeters x 6 centimeters)
For students with academic degrees from non-Jordanian universities: grade sheets of the bachelor's degree or, for doctoral students, the master's degree, certified by the Jordanian Council of Higher Education.
For students with academic degrees awarded by non-Jordanian universities, equivalence of university degrees, awarded by the Jordanian Council of Higher Education.

There are four sets of requirements a student must satisfy to complete a graduate degree: university, faculty, departmental, and free electives. In the Faculty of Arts, a total of 132 credit hours are needed. Credits are based on semester hours. Faculty requirements consist of 21 credit hours, some compulsory and some electives. Departmental requirements consist of compulsory courses and electives within the department. In a single specialization, students are required to take 60 credit hours of compulsory courses and 27 in departmental electives. For a major specialization, students are required to take 39 credits in compulsory subjects and 21 in electives within the department. To have a minor specialization, a student is normally expected to complete 27 credit hours in the field. An additional six hours may be taken in any department of the university. To be in good standing, graduate students must maintain a minimum cumulative average of 70 percent. If not, they are placed on academic probation. Students normally have to take final examinations for each course in which they are enrolled. Final grades are entered into the records as a percentage. The minimum passing grade for an individual course is 50 percent.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Administration: Jordan, like most Arab countries, has a centralized system of education. Thus, the MOE constitutes the final authority on all important matters, such as what is to be taught by whom and under what conditions. Accordingly, decisions on the distribution of resources, syllabi, textbooks, teacher appointments, and national examinations are made by the MOE or its affiliated agencies.

Administratively, there are four units that plan and implement the educational process. These units are:

The Center: It is responsible for designing the educational policy and plans, as well as implementing and following up. The units in the Center include the secretary general, the general directors, specialized directors, and the office of the minister.
The General Directorates of Education in the governorates: These directorates are headed by general-directors who supervise and implement the educational policy and plans at the governorate level. There are 12 general directorates.
District Directorates of Education: There are 26 district directorates of education in the governorates, each with a director and assistants for technical and administrative affairs. Each district has a local education committee or, where such committees are not available, a municipal council, which assists the district office in carrying out such activities as building and expanding schools, appointing staff, allocating funds, and training. The district or regional directorates mainly carry out the policies of the MOE and the Central Education Committee attached to it.
The school is considered the central unit of the educational process. It is administered by the principal and assisted by adequate staff to provide the necessary services.

Institutions other than the MOE participate in delivering educational services. These include the Ministry of Social Development and the Directorate of Education and Culture of the Armed Forces, which administer 19 schools. UNRWA is responsible for administering 198 schools for Palestinian refugees in which 143,893 students were enrolled in the academic year 1997-98.

Financing Education: Public education is financed mainly through the general budget of the government. For the 1997 fiscal year, education contributed 4.2 percent of the gross national product, and educational spending represented 12.5 percent of the total general budget of the government. This was up from 8.5 percent in 1990. Education in Jordan, however, is not financed by the government alone. UNRWA finances and administers basic education for Palestinian refugees.

Public universities are financed by government support from the general budget, customs and taxes imposed by the government, student fees, grants, and university benefit projects. Student fees in private universities are three to four times the fees of public universities.

Public universities evaluate their own performance through their boards of trustees, while private universities are evaluated for accreditation by specialized committees that pay repeated visits to the universities and report to the Ministry.

Private universities are owned by companies that are established under the Corporate Law and are either public shareholding companies or private shareholders. All these institutions are for profit entities.

While some financial support is available from the government for students attending university, the majority are supported by their families. Those students on government scholarships pursue a secondary school teaching career. Arabic, English, mathematics, and science are the prime areas of concentration for most of these students who are expected upon graduation to serve the country's schools.

Tuition and fees are the same in all of the public universities, while they vary in private universities. The main sources of financing for private universities are student fees; shareholders, either individuals or institutions interested in education; and donations from individuals or institutions in Jordan or abroad.

Educational Research: Educational research, still in its infancy in Jordan, is carried out by different agencies. Research is a function of the Research Section of the MOE's General Directorate of Educational Research and Studies. The tasks of this directorate are:

Identifying the problems related to teaching-learning process.
Selecting researchers to conduct studies, monitor their implementations, and prepare their budgets.
Conducting research related to the improving the teaching-learning process.

The research budget at the MOE for the 1998 academic year was estimated at 26,000 Jordanian dinars and distributed as follows: research conducting; stationery and publications; and rewards of researchers, coordinators, and evaluators of educational research.

Other organizations concerned with educational research in Jordan are the National Center for Human Resource Development, the universities, and the Educational Research and Development Center of UNRWA.

The research fund in the budgets of universities is either very small (about 1 percent), too small to be useful, and in many cases not used at all. Limited project funding is available from such local sources as the cooperative research programs administered by the Higher Council of Science and Technology.

Nonformal Education

Various nonformal educational programs are offered by the education system in Jordan, such as literacy programs, evening classes, and home study, which provide education for adults to continue self-learning and to sit for school and general examinations. In addition, short, nonformal vocational training courses and programs in cultural centers are offered for adults.

Special attention is paid to literacy and adult education programs, in particular. A plan for this purpose was set down aiming at reducing the rate of illiteracy from 11 percent in 1997 to 8 percent by the year 2000; reinforcing literacy programs by introducing agricultural, health, and cultural skills to meet the needs of the labor market; improving compulsory education conditions to reduce failure and dropouts in the basic cycle; developing the quality of nonformal education programs; diversifying teaching methods and content; and developing trainers' and supervisors' capabilities in illiteracy eradication and adult education programs.

During the 1997-98 school year, 635 literacy centers were established in various areas of the kingdom, 53 for males and 582 for females, with a total of 11,226 learners. The evening centers enrolled 3,447 students; the home studies program, 567; and the summer centers, 5,010.

Cultural centers provide nonformal education and training through vocational and academic courses at the end of which the student obtains a certificate certified by the MOE. By 1997-98, there were 349 distributed in various directorates. The programs are diversified, and the course durations range from one month to one year. These programs provided 43 specialized training courses with about 27,720 students in 1996-97.

The national program of adult vocational education programs was initiated through the support of the United Nations and the International Labor Organization. Under the plan, known as the National Vocational Training Scheme, the trade training centers provide apprenticeship programs for youth and unemployed adults and skill upgrading for those already employed.

To upgrade the skills of employed workers, so-called "labor upgrading centers" have been created. These centers, which give courses in the evening, utilizing the facilities of the secondary industrial schools, normally offer specializations available in the school that houses them. On the average, 150 hours of practice training and relevant technical theory are required over a 6 month period. The employer is responsible for paying the nominal course fee, which is about 70 Jordanian dinars. Most of these programs are under the Vocational and Technical Committee (VTC) and available in Amman, Irbid, and Zarqa. The Telecommunications Corporation has also established centers to train workers in this field of employment.

In 2000, the Economic Consultative Council of Vocational and Technical Committee finished the draft law for a vocational and technical training council. The goal is to formulate comprehensive policies to secure the best development of manpower. The drafted law would also unite the efforts of the many sectors that are concerned with vocational and technical training, such as the Ministry of Education, Al-Balqa University, the Armed Forces, and the private sector.

There is also a General Management Institute in Amman that began operation in 1968, seeking to upgrade the administrative personnel in both governmental agencies and private firms. The training, normally given over a period of 2 to 12 weeks, focuses on such fields as high and middle level management, supervision, personnel and office management, secretarial work, and accountancy. In 1975, some 375 individuals were enrolled in the Institute. The government has also supported the establishment of Workers Education Institutes concentrating on the role of trade unions in society. Trade union leaders are urged to attend these institutes and enroll in such courses as economic development, labor wages policy, and production.

Teaching Profession

Generally, primary and intermediate school teachers are trained in the community colleges and secondary school teachers in universities.

With the dramatic increase in enrollment, there has been an increased demand for teachers. In 1953 there were fewer than 5,000 teachers, while at the beginning of the 1980s there were almost 30,000. After the Gulf War in 1990, many of the Jordanians who had been working in Kuwait and other Gulf countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Bahrain, were dismissed from their jobs and returned to Jordan. In a couple of years the need for teachers was dramatically increased, and it is estimated that the number of teachers in 1992-93 was approximately 55,000.

In order to improve the teaching profession through upgrading teachers' qualifications, Act 3 of 1994 stipulated that every teacher, in any stage from kindergarten to the secondary cycle, must have a university degree. Their supervisors must hold a postgraduate degree.

In 1997, a total of 69.50 percent of teachers had a community college degree, 26 percent had a bachelor's degree, and 3.6 percent had more than a bachelor's degree. The MOE encourages teachers who already have their bachelor's degree to enroll in graduate studies. In 1997, the MOE funded 759 teachers to get their bachelor's degree, 423 to get their diploma, and 75 to get their master's degree. The General Directorate of Training in the MOE is responsible for planning these programs in cooperation with educational experts and international and regional organizations.

Teachers are selected for the job through competitive selection and on the basis of need, specialization, year of graduation, GPA, living place, and experience. Although there are general criteria for employment, a quota is given to some categories, such as orphans of fathers who served in the Jordanian army, poor families, and handicapped teachers who hold an academic qualification. Generally speaking, promotion takes place after passing five years in a grade, class, or category. It is possible to be promoted earlier with a higher academic degree or a distinctive performance.

Teachers' workload (average number of weekly periods allocated to classroom teaching) depends upon where in the educational cycle they teach. Generally, for example, teachers at vocational schools teach more periods than teachers at secondary schools.

Salaries are determined according to Civil Service Regulation No. 1 of 1988 and the Unified Allowance Regulation No. 23 of 1988. Salaries are classified according to academic qualifications, category, grade, and nature of work.

Summary

Jordan is a country rich in human capital but poor in natural resources. The government therefore decided to begin a broad-based reform program. The first step was to establish the institutional and physical infrastructure needed to support Jordan's educational goals.

To move reform forward, the government took several steps: a new education law was prepared in 1994; the school system was restructured, abolishing middle schools and reducing the secondary school cycle from three to two years; the curriculum was modernized; and higher minimum qualifications were established for teachers.

More attention should be given to education at the preprimary level. The gross enrollment at this level is 26 percent. Because 99 percent of preprimary schools are run by private organizations and charge fees, not all parents can afford to send their kids to preschool. Thus, not all kids will be ready to learn when they start their first grade in public education. The government should initiate some preprimary schools, especially in rural areas.

At the basic education level (grades 1-10), the government has achieved nearly universal access: gross enrollment is 95 percent. Jordan was active in adopting the framework of the Education for All Conference held in Thailand in 1990 and again in Amman in 1996. This indicates the awareness of the government to educate all.

Secondary education in Jordan consists of two types—comprehensive (academic and vocational) and applied general education. The comprehensive secondary school provides two options—the academic and the vocational. Vocational education is offered in six types of schools—commercial, industrial, agricultural, nursing, hotel services, and home economics.

The higher education system in Jordan is comprised of two-year community colleges and four- to five-year university education. The offerings dramatically expanded in the 1990s when the government allowed private firms to invest in education by building their own universities. Twelve private universities were established, and three others were under construction in 2001.

The first public university was established in 1962. Three other universities were established by the end of 1989, followed by four more in the 1990s. The major reason for expanding higher education in 1990s was to cater to the hundreds of thousands of people who returned to the country after the Gulf War. The government was faced with the great demand to expand public universities, and several business leaders felt the need to invest in private universities.

In February 2000, the Jordanian government got a $34.7 million loan from the World Bank for a higher education development project. Its objective is to initiate improvements in the quality, relevance, and efficiency of Jordan's higher education. This is a very important change that needs to take place soon. Even though all public universities are governed by the same authority—the Council of Higher Education—these universities do not coordinate effectively in terms of the specializations to be taught. All of them offer similar fields and have the same colleges. The problem is that each university serves a certain region of the country, and they are not seen as a single unit serving the whole country.

While there is a high unemployment rate in the country, there is a need for skilled labor, but the universities do not focus on this type of training. The exception to this is the Jordan University of Science and Technology, which decided to open new fields of study that are not taught in other universities.

The two major changes planned for the academic year 2001-02 will be to begin computer training in the third grade and to teach English in first grade. The Jordanian government is aware of the importance of English as the language needed to compete globally and the importance of computer technology as an essential prerequisite for success in the information age.

In 2000, the Ministry of Education signed a $33 million contract to purchase approximately 20,000 computers. Twenty-two computers and a server to connect the school with a local network will be installed in 900 of the kingdom's public schools. The Ministry's ambitious program to introduce computers and computer-based learning in all government schools will be implemented over three years.

Incorporating the English teaching policy will be a challenge. The government will need to hire new teachers in the face of a budget deficit and hiring freeze in the public sector.

Teaching computer technology might be an even more unrealistic decision. The Ministry of Education unfortunately does not have trained people to teach computers. The other problem is financing such a project. This requires hiring new teachers and buying new computers, neither of which is possible unless the government gets loans from international lenders.

Bibliography

Badran, A., ed. Education in the Middle East. New York: Paragon House, 1989.

Mazawi, A. "The Contested Terrains of Education in the Arab States: An Appraisal of Major Research Trends, 2000." Comparative Education Review 43(3) 332-250.

Ministry of Education. The Annual Book. Jordan: The First National Conference for Educational Development, 1988.

Obeidat, S., and A. Rashda. Education in Jordan from 1921 to 1993. Amman: Ministry of Education, 1993.

World Bank Operation Evaluation Department. Partnership for Education in Jordan, 2000. Jordan Higher Education Development Study. World Bank, 1996.

World Education Report. The Right to Education: Towards Education for All Throughout Life. UNESCO, 2000.

—Osama M. Obeidat

World Education Encyclopedia