Bulgaria

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Republic of Bulgaria
Region:	Europe
Population:	7,796,694
Language(s):	Bulgarian
Literacy Rate:	98%
Number of Primary Schools:	3,170
Compulsory Schooling:	8 years
Public Expenditure on Education:	3.2%
Foreign Students in National Universities:	8,496
Libraries:	4,237
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 431,790
	Secondary: 733,362
	Higher: 262,757
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 99%
	Secondary: 77%
	Higher: 41%
Teachers:	Primary: 25,860
	Secondary: 67,088
	Higher: 26,303

Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 17:1
	Secondary: 11:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 98%
	Secondary: 76%
	Higher: 52%

History & Background

Bulgaria is a South East European country situated in the heartland of the Balkan Peninsula. With a territory of 110,993 square kilometers, it ranks among the smaller states of Europe. Bulgaria borders Romania to the north, Yugoslavia and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the west, Greece to the south, Turkey to the southeast, and has a Black Sea coast line to the east. Demographic trends in the 1990s led to the decline of a population of roughly eight million. An estimated one million Bulgarians reside abroad, primarily in North America and Western Europe. Turks constitute the largest ethnic minority (about 10 percent), followed by the Roma or Gypsies, a group elusive to statistics. There are also Russian, Jewish, Armenian, Tatar, Pomak (Bulgarian Muslim), and Greek populations in Bulgaria. Bulgarian is the official language and the language of education, although most minority groups also use their mother tongues.

Bulgarian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, a choice made in the ninth century at the time of conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Bulgarian is a Slavic language, akin to Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, and Russian. Compulsory education was widespread for most of the twentieth century, causing literacy rates to be as high as ninety-nine percent and to be almost equal for both genders. The capital city Sofia is a major center of culture and education and boasts some of the nation's most prestigious schools of higher learning. Otherwise, educational facilities are evenly distributed throughout the country and available to both urban and rural citizens.

Bulgarian traditions in education go back to the Middle Ages when the First Bulgarian Kingdom (893-1018) provided the conditions for a blossoming of early Slavic literature and culture based on the Cyrillic alphabet. The Bulgarian Tsar Simeon The Great (893-927) welcomed the disciples of the "Apostles of the Slavs," St. Cyril and Methodius and furthered their effort. A court school was established in the Bulgarian capital of Preslav. St. Clement, founded a school on the shores of Lake Ohrid in Macedonia. Thus Bulgaria became the "cradle of Slavic civilization", where an estimated 3,500 priest-teachers were trained, large-scale translation of service books was carried out, and original works of theology, philosophy, literature, and art were created. This legacy later enriched other Slavic Eastern Orthodox nations, including Serbia, Russia, and Ukraine. The Bulgarians celebrated May 24th, the day of the Slavic alphabet and culture, as one of the most cherished national holidays.

The Ottoman conquest (1396-1878) brought education and culture to a standstill. The nation had lost the institutions that previously sponsored it: the state was defeated and the autocephalous church submitted to the control of the Greek-dominated Orthodox millet in Constantinople. The only Bulgarian schools during this period were kiliini (cell) schools at monasteries which taught basic literacy. The Greek schools available at the time were not Bulgarian in spirit and were not trusted by the local population. The national revival was stirred by a "Slav-Bulgarian History," a book written in 1762 by the monk Paisii from the Hilendar Monastery in Mount Athos. It revived the memory of past glory and had enormous impact on the nation. Other books followed and generated a popular movement for secular education, which was at the mainstream of the Bulgarian national renaissance. In 1824, the distinguished Bulgarian scientist Dr. Peter Beron published the "Fish Primer," titled after the illustration on the front page. This textbook taught the essentials of arithmetic, geography, biology, and hygiene. In its forward, the author gave valuable pedagogical advice to teachers and promoted the concepts of secular education. The first fully secular Bulgarian school, known as the Aprilov Gymnasium, was established in the town of Gabrovo in 1835. Secular education quickly gathered momentum and by the middle of the nineteenth century, a real system of schools existed throughout the entire territory of the country.

State education dates back to 1878 when independence was restored with the decisive help of Russia. However, the first Ministry of Education did not have to start from nothing; a system of 1,479 primary schools, 50 secondary institutions, and 130 reading clubs was already in existence. The young modern nation-state pursued vigorous policies in the field of education. The legal foundations for these were laid out in the Turnovo Constitution of 1879, which sanctioned free and secular primary education, compulsory for all children regardless of gender, age, nationality, or faith. A law adopted in 1921, during the rule of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, extended the period of compulsory education to seven years. The establishment of the first institution of higher learning, St. Clement Ohridski University of Sofia, occurred in 1888. During the period 1878-1912 a fine arts and a music academy, teacher-training institutes, vocational schools, theological institutions, and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences was established. Educational development was slowed down during the period of the Balkan Wars (1912-13) and the First and Second World Wars.

The advent of communism's rise to power, shortly after the end of the Second World War, had a decisive impact on education. During the period 1944-89, education in Bulgaria was heavily centralized and placed under the rigid control of the Communist Party. Religious influences, previously quite strong in the schools, were replaced by heavy obedience to the atheistic doctrine of Marxism-Leninism. Private schools were abolished. In the meantime, the education system was expanded and new schools were founded at all levels. A law passed in 1948 made education compulsory until the age of 16. The curriculum was rigorous and comprehensive, with very few elective subjects, and placed special emphasis on math and the sciences. Education was free at all levels, including higher education and post-graduate studies. Many new universities, mostly with technical profile, opened new opportunities for professional growth to previously underprivileged groups of society and to women. A typical characteristic of academia was the separation of higher teaching from research, institutionalized in the parallel existence of universities and research institutes. Under communism, education bred sophisticated urban elites, whose covert opposition to the system undermined its very foundations and facilitated its fall in the "tender" revolution of 1989. The freedom of travel after the fall of communism enabled many Bulgarian professionals to look for employment on the world labor market. Many found white-collar jobs in North America and Western Europe during the 1990s—a testimony to the quality of Bulgarian education in this period.

Since 1989, the nation has lived through a transition period, which has encompassed thorough changes of the economy, from command to market-oriented and the polity from totalitarianism to pluralist democracy. These changes affected education in a variety of ways. Some of the immediate positive effects included freeing of the education system from ideological constraints, its decentralization, and the restoration of private schools as an alternative in education. Nonetheless, the transition brought about an acute economic crisis. The state economy could no longer continue as the only source to fund education. The cuts in the state appropriations for science and education were extremely severe in the beginning of the 1990s. For example, in 1990 the resources provided by the Bulgarian government for higher education and research were reduced 2.5 times compared to the level of 1989, after corrections for inflation. This underscored the need for introducing paid tuition in higher schools. The economic crisis reached unprecedented official rates of 15 to 17 percent and families in which one or both parents were unemployed were struggling to keep their children in school or college. Despite the crisis, the best traditions in education were preserved and enrollment in higher schools increased. This fact underscores the value that Bulgarians placed on education.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Education was in a state of reform and had been subject to intense legislative activity throughout the 1990s. The Bulgarian Constitution adopted by the Great National Assembly in 1991 and promulgated in The State Newspaper No. 56 on July 13, 1991 laid out the basic principles of education. Article 53 guaranteed the right to education for all citizens as well as the right to free primary and secondary education in state and municipal schools. Higher education was also free under conditions specified by law. Education was compulsory until the age of sixteen. The constitution placed all schools under the control of the state; however, it provided for the academic autonomy of institutions of higher learning.

The Public Education Act of 1991, amended and supplemented several times since, gave substance to the constitutional provisions and enhanced the democratic character of changes in the education system. It established the secular character of education; however, it also authorized the establishment of religious schools and the equality of religious education. The Act sanctioned the restoration of private schools as an alternative to state and municipal schools, and allowed the establishment of schools with foreign participation. The Act specified the compulsory age and the official language of instruction. The law guaranteed the right to choice of school and type of education based on personal preference and ability. It ruled out corporal punishment and guaranteed students the right to dignified treatment. The Act detailed the rights and obligations of both teachers and students. It further laid out the structure of the education system, comprising of basic, secondary, and higher education and outlined the system of administration and finance of education.

The Higher Education Act of 1995 describes the goal of higher education; the training of highly qualified specialists and promoting the progress of science and culture. The Act legalized many changes that were made in the sphere of higher education during the period of 1990-1995. The state allowed higher schools to initiate their reform and sanctioned the results, which included the introduction of new system of academic degrees—specialist, bachelor, master, doctor; the initiation of the process of accreditation; and the principle of academic autonomy. The latter gives expression to the intellectual freedom of the academic community and provides for academic freedoms, academic self-government, and the inviolability of the higher school's territory. The law also strictly lessens the functions of the state in the management of higher education, reducing considerably its role of supervisor and sponsor of higher learning. The Act has been amended several times since its adoption in 1995.

A Law on the Level of Schooling, the General Educational Minimum, and the Curriculum was adopted in 1999. It aimed at establishing uniform requirements for all schools in the country, guaranteeing equivalency of certificates issued for the completion of a particular grade and level of schooling. The law regulated the first two levels of schooling, basic and secondary. It provided the basis for curriculum development and grading.

The Vocational Education and Training Act of 1999 sanctioned a large variety of educational programs guaranteeing professional education to all citizens who were older than thirteen and had completed at least sixth grade of general education. It established uniform requirements for certification of the acquired professional skills, comprising six degrees of proficiency. The law also sanctioned the establishment of a network of centers for professional orientation.

Educational System—Overview

Education in Bulgaria is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. Parents have legal responsibility to secure the school attendance of their child. All schools in the country are co-educational, admitting students of both genders. The official language of instruction is Bulgarian. Schoolchildren who have a different first language, besides the compulsory study of the Bulgarian language may study their mother tongue in municipal schools under the protection and control of the state.

The educational system (prior to higher education) comprises 12 grades, organized in two major levels: basic and secondary. Basic education (grades first through eighth) is subdivided into two sub-levels: elementary (grades first through fourth) and presecondary (grades fifth through eighth). Secondary education normally encompasses grades eighth through twelfth, but can start earlier depending on the type of school. There are two major kinds of secondary schools: secondary comprehensive, usually called gymnasia (high school) and secondary vocational, most often referred to as tehnikum (vocational school.) Special schools at all educational levels accommodate students with impaired health. Private schools constitute a new element in the structure of the education system.

Special schools accommodate students in need of special care because of learning disabilities, health, or emotional problems. There is a wide variety of special schools, catering to children who are chronically ill, mentally retarded, blind or visually impaired, hearing and speech impaired, or who have behavioral problems bordering on juvenile delinquency. In 1999-2000, there were 146 special schools at all levels of the education system with 16,000 students enrolled. A significant number of the special schools function as internati (boarding schools).

Private schools are still relatively few in numbers. By January 1999, there were only 52 private schools. Six of the private schools were elementary, twenty-three basic, two presecondary, seventeen high schools, and four general comprehensive including all levels. There were 4,382 students enrolled in all private schools, or only 0.5 percent of the whole student population. Private schools are subject to social controversy because of widespread concerns that they undermine the nation's democratic traditions in education. Despite that, their numbers slowly increase: in comparison with 1998, there were eight more private schools and student enrollment enlarged by 389.

The curriculum is structured into three components: compulsory, elective, and optional; the correlation between those varies at different types of schools. Subjects fall into the following eight major areas of content: Bulgarian language and literature, foreign languages, mathematics, information technologies, social sciences and civics, natural sciences and ecology, music and art, physical culture and sports.

Schools operate on a five-day week schedule. September 15 or the workday closest to it marks the beginning of the school year. This is a festive occasion. Many students go to school carrying bouquets of flowers for their teachers and may be accompanied by their families. The duration of the school year varies by the school level and grade and depends on the quantity of material that needs to be covered. It ends on May 24 for grades 1 and 12 (in the latter case, the intention is to provide time for the matriculation examination). The school year continues until May 31 for grades 2 through 4, until June 15 for grades 5 through 8, June 30 for grades 9 through 11. The school year is divided into two sroka (terms, singular is srok ); the first term begins on September 15 and ends on February 4, the second one starts on February 9. There is a Christmas break (December 24 through January 6), an inter-term break (February 7-8), a spring break (April 1-10), and a two-day break before Eastern Orthodox Easter. In addition, first graders only have a short break in the fall (November 11-13). Setting school vacations in relation to religious holidays is a departure from the practices of the communist regime, which did everything possible to discourage religion and banish it from the public sphere. The summer vacation spans from the end of the school year until September 15. If schools are to be closed due to inclement weather or fuel shortage, the days missed are compensated at the expense of vacation time.

Students from grades 1 through 12 normally spend half a day in school; the other half is dedicated to homework and independent study at home. In elementary school and sometimes in presecondary school there exists an option called zanimalnya (extended care) for students to spend the other half of the day in school working on their lessons under the control of a teacher. This is done upon the explicit request of the parents. Schools in big cities operate according to a two-shift scheme (morning and afternoon) because of shortage of school premises. In small cities and villages the one-shift scheme is prevalent.

The grading system is based on numerals, where 6 is otlichen (excellent), 5 is mnogo dobar (very good), 4 is dobar (good), 3 is sreden (satisfactory), and 2 is slab (poor). Passing grades are 3 through 6; 2 denotes a failure. Very rarely applied, 1 (very poor) is sometimes given for academic misconduct. This grading system is used at all levels of schooling. Grading is based on written and oral testing, homework, and in-class participation. Students do not pass automatically to a higher grade level. Students who have poor grades in more than three subjects repeat the year. In case of three or less poor grades the student has the right to take a supplementary examination, a failure in which also results in repeating the grade. There is no passing to a higher grade on probation. Students are not allowed to repeat grades more than twice in their school career.

Textbooks are subject to contest-based writing, publication, and distribution. All Bulgarian publishing houses that meet the criteria set by the Ministry of Education and Science can compete. The textbooks suitable for use in a particular subject are selected under conditions of real competition with respect to content, artistic layout, and price. On those terms, the Ministry works with more than thirty state and private publishing houses, which print and distribute over 480 textbooks for comprehensive and 800 textbooks for vocational instruction. The schools then place their orders directly with the publishers. The introduction of the contest principle in the publication of textbooks raised professional standards and resulted in improved quality of textbooks.

Bulgarian schools are well equipped with traditional audiovisual aids, such as maps, charts, and globes. Simple technical appliances (like overhead projectors, TV sets, cassette-recorders, and slide-projectors) are also widespread, but the instructional materials that go with them are often obsolete and not in compliance with the new content of study. Office equipment, copiers, and printers are generally lacking in classrooms. But schools face grave problems in securing contemporary computer hardware, software, and communications. The need to update information technologies is well recognized and guidelines have been developed for their introduction.

Bulgarian educators are generally quite open to new instructional techniques and methods. The problems stem from a poor material base. Relatively few computers are available, and those tend to be outdated models with inadequate performance. The existing computers in 1995 were IBM (about 30 percent), Macintosh (2 percent), and the archaic Bulgarian Pravets-8 (67 percent). Due to financial difficulties, very few funds have been allocated for purchase of new computers and any contributions in this field come primarily from donors. Despite all these difficulties, many Bulgarian schools are on-line and teachers and students partake in the information exchange.

Bulgaria has significant minority populations whose first language is not Bulgarian. Under the circumstances, it is very important that schools breed a public spirit of tolerance and dialogue. Traditionally, minorities have enjoyed all rights to education as Bulgarian citizens and have been well integrated in the education system. After the fall of communism in 1989, many former Eastern Bloc nations lived through a process of redefining of national identity, nation-states and citizenship that led to the eruption of conflicts and civil wars. Bulgaria constituted a fortunate exception from this pattern and the education system was entitled to some credit for preserving the national peace. Though, a significant deficiency is the lack of methods for teaching Bulgarian as a foreign language to schoolchildren who speak another language at home. An alarming symptom of alienation is the increasing dropout rate among Roma children who are of compulsory education age.

Education in Bulgaria, although fundamentally national in character, has significant foreign influences. Russian impact was most pronounced during the period of the national revival in the nineteenth century and stemmed the ideas of Slavophilism and pan-Orthodoxy. Many young Bulgarians went to pursue their education in St. Petersburg and Odessa. Immediately after the liberation from Ottoman domination in 1878, achieved with decisive help from Russia, Russian experts remained in Bulgaria to assist with the establishment of the administrative structure of the young nation-state. After the end of the World War II, Bulgaria became a satellite state of the Soviet Union and was heavily subjected to Russian influence in the sphere of culture and education. The model of the entire education system, and particularly that of higher education, was designed to emulate the Soviet education system. Russian language became a compulsory subject as early as fifth grade and intensified at every subsequent school level. The generations of Bulgarians educated under communist rule have command of Russian which provided immediate access to a much larger scope of publications. Russian was promoted as a lingua franca among professional circles of the Eastern Bloc nations. Many Bulgarians received their higher education in Soviet institutions of higher learning, particularly in the technical fields. Although, after 1989, Russian influences on Bulgarian education were on the decline.

Western European and American influences are also evident. German impact, channeled through the Bulgarian royal house which was of German dynastic descent and facilitated by German economic interests in the Balkans, was considerable during the two World Wars that Bulgaria entered as an ally of Germany. French cultural and educational influences infiltrated through the efforts of Jesuit priests in the nineteenth century and the francophone programs of the French government throughout the twentieth century. The first exposure to American educational influence began with the work of Protestant missionaries in the middle of the nineteenth century, remained in the country until the communist regime expelled them in 1945. Meanwhile, they opened some of the first nurseries in Bulgaria, as well as teacher training institutes, vocational schools, and a college in Sofia. The latter was restored in the early 1990s; despite its name, it is in fact one of the most prestigious high schools in the Bulgarian capital. The most significant embodiment of American presence in the Bulgarian education system is the American University in Blagoevgrad, which attracts students from all Balkan nations. Well-educated strata of the population normally speak at least one Western language. Until the 1970s, choices were almost evenly split between German, French and English; younger generations, especially after 1990, overwhelmingly opted for English.

A major goal of the reform of Bulgaria's education system was to bring standards in line with the European context and to harmonize the educational process with that of Western Europe. This was expected to assist the nation's accession to the European Union. In December 1999 Bulgaria was invited to begin negotiations to that effect with practical discussion that begun in March 2000 on six topics, the first two of which were "education and training" and "science and research." Of primary importance is the impact of educational programs and initiatives sponsored by international organizations: UNESCO, the Council of Europe, the European Union, the World Bank. Joint initiatives in education, such as the programs PHARE, TEMPUS, COPERNICUS in the 1990s vastly improved Bulgaria's structure and content of its education.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preprimary and primary education in Bulgaria consists of two levels—detski yasli (nurseries) for children through the age of three and detski gradini (kindergartens) for children ages three to seven. These age limits are not absolute, since kindergartens often accept children who are two and a half years old, and elementary schools enroll six-year-olds. Attendance in both cases is voluntary and fees are charged. The nurseries are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health and are not considered part of the education system.

Bulgaria's traditions in preprimary education go back 120 years. An education act in 1891 introduced compulsory kindergarten attendance in the cities. While preschool education is not a requirement, there exist impressive facilities, sufficient to enroll the entire children population in all-day kindergartens. However, attendance is on the decline. The major reason for that are the high unemployment rates and the economic difficulties encountered by many families. In 1990-1991, about 312,000 of 595,448 children ages two through seven attended kindergartens (52.4 percent). The percentages slightly differ between cities (53.13 percent), and villages (50.78 percent), and are lowest in Sofia (49.78 percent). The number of children in this age rapidly decreases as well, due to falling birth rates. This explains why relative numbers increased, and absolute enrollment in kindergartens fell. For instance, in 1998-1999 nearly 230,330, or 58 percent, of the children in this age group, attended kindergarten. In consequence to declining enrollment, preprimary education enhances the intellectual and social development of youngsters and prepares them for a smooth transition to grade school. Kindergarten attendance is socially desirable; most of the children who are not enrolled in preprimary education come from low-income families where one or both parents are unemployed.

Grades 1 through 4 comprise the first sub-level of basic education or nachalno uchilishte (elementary school). According to a 1998 amendment of the Public Education Act, children start school at the age of seven; they are supposed to have turned or are going to turn seven in the year they join first grade. Six-year-olds may be enrolled in case their physical and mental development allows for such a step, a decision left to the discretion of their parents or guardians. The curriculum for grades 1 through 4 includes eight compulsory subjects: Bulgarian language, mathematics, introductory Bulgarian history and geography, natural science, fine art, music, and physical education. Minimum comprehensive instruction includes 22-25 hours per week. The curriculum also provides for three to four hours of optional subjects per week. Primary education is completed without exam. Svidetelstvo (certificate) of primary education is issued on the basis of the grades earned in fourth grade. In 1999-2000, there were 385,000 students enrolled in elementary education.

The second sub-level of the basic school, called progimnaziya (pre-high school) covers grades 5 through 8. The curriculum at this level includes 12 compulsory subjects: Bulgarian language and literature, mathematics, history, geography, physics, chemistry, biology, fine arts, music, technical education, physical education, and one foreign language. A second foreign language may be included in the seventh grade. The minimum instruction time includes 27-30 hours per week; another four hours per week are allowed for optional subjects. A Svidetelstvo (certificate) for completed basic education is issued on the basis of the grades earned in eighth grade without a final exam. In 1999-2000, there were 357,000 students enrolled at this school level.

Secondary Education

Secondary education normally covers grades 8 through 12 and is regarded as a preparation for higher education. There exist several types of schools, usually called gymnaziya (high school). Most common is the secondary comprehensive school, which is the third and completing level of general comprehensive school, following the elementary and presecondary levels. In 1999-2000 there were 398 secondary schools. Socially more prestigious and widely preferred are the profile-oriented secondary schools, of which there are two kinds. The first one comprises secondary schools with intensive instruction in a foreign language (most often English, but also French, German, Spanish, and Italian). A peculiarity of this foreign-language gymnaziya is that admission takes place after the completion of seventh grade and is based on competitive entrance examination in mathematics and the Bulgarian language. The first year of instruction, called preparatory class, is dedicated to an in-depth study of a respective foreign language. This is followed by grades 8 through 12, which complete the general curriculum. The second kind of profile-oriented secondary schools, with entrance after eighth grade and competitive admission, are those specializing in math and science, the humanities, sports, and the arts. In 1999-2000, there were 69 foreign language, 14 sports, 15 humanities, and 34 math and science profile-oriented secondary schools.

The course of study ends with a compulsory matriculation examination, which comprises three exams: Bulgarian language and literature, social sciences and civics, and a subject corresponding to the profile of the school. Those who complete a secondary comprehensive school successfully are awarded a diploma, which qualifies them to apply to institutions of higher learning. In 1999-2000, there were 177,000 students enrolled in all secondary comprehensive schools.

Traditions in the secondary education field go more than 120 years back in history. In the 1990s, vocational education was given special attention resulting in the Vocational Education and Training Act of 1999. Secondary vocational education combines the goals of providing professional qualification with broadening the general comprehensive education of the students. There are several types of schools: tehnikum (technical school) with admission after completed eighth grade and a four-year course of instruction; technical schools with admission after completed seventh grade with intensive foreign language studies and a five-year course of instruction; secondary vocational-technical schools with admission after eighth grade and a three-year course of instruction; vocational schools with admission after sixth, seventh, and eighth grade; and vocational classes within the framework of the secondary comprehensive school. This is practiced in small settlements lacking a developed network of vocational schools. The fields and degrees of qualification are in accordance with standards established by the International Labor Organization.

Forms of instruction include daytime, evening, extramural, correspondence, individual, and self-instruction. This flexibility allows for the inclusion of adults in vocational education. Studies are completed after matriculation exams and result in a diploma, which entitles graduates to continue their education on a higher level or to enter the workforce. Statistics showed a trend towards increase in the percentage of students who pursue higher or semi-higher education after graduating from secondary vocational schools. In 1999-2000, there were 189,000 students enrolled in secondary vocational schools, six percent more than the students in secondary comprehensive schools.

Higher Education

Vische obrazovanie (higher education) is the sector of the education system that experienced most intensive growth during the 1990s, despite unfavorable economic conditions and diminishing state funds. This tendency indicates that Bulgarian society in times of economic duress and social crisis resorts to higher education as a reliable investment. The pace of reform and the changes introduced in higher education are also more considerable than those in preprimary, basic, and secondary education. Some major outcomes of this reform are the abolition of ideological subjects and content; the reshaping of study programs, curricula, and syllabi; the abolition of research institutes and ensuing unemployment among researchers; the introduction of tuition fees in public universities; the increase of the number of universities as a result of the transformation of many higher institutes into universities; and the establishment of private universities and colleges.

The total number of higher schools in Bulgaria is 88. There exist three types of higher schools: universities, specialized higher schools (academies and institutes), and independent colleges. There are 26 universities, belonging to one of the following two kinds: traditional universities with faculties of law, history, education, philosophy, economics, philology, chemistry, biology, physics, mathematics, and geography; and specialized universities of medicine, technology, agriculture, and economics. The number of specialized high schools is 15. Some of them are institutes (of technological sciences), others are academies (of fine arts, music, sport, theology, theater and cinema, and the military). Because universities and specialized high schools have an equal status, it is often said that there are altogether 41 universities. There are also 47 colleges specializing in technology, teacher-training, nursing, tourism, and telecommunications. Although, there are slightly more colleges than universities, the latter are more prestigious because of the quality of education offered and the employment possibilities after graduation. Despite the fact that most colleges exist within the structure of a university, the 'functional bridges' between them are not well constructed. Ten of the higher schools in Bulgaria are private: four of them are universities and specialized high schools and six are colleges.

Higher schools offer study programs that result in the following types of degrees: a specialist diploma awarded for completion of a three-year program; a bachelor's diploma awarded for completion of a four-year program; a master's diploma awarded for the completion of a five-year program, or one year after the bachelor's degree; doctoral degree awarded for completion of a three-year research program after the master's diploma. A necessary prerequisite for enrollment in a higher school is a diploma for completed secondary education. Otherwise, rules of admission are left to the discretion of the particular school and vary considerably, being lower in the newly established private institutions of higher learning. The most prestigious universities apply a formula, which combines results from written admission exams with grades from the high school diploma.

During the 1990s student enrollment in institutions of higher learning increased considerably. In 1988-1989, there were 160,000 students pursuing higher education. By way of comparison, the number for 1992-1993 was 192,000; in 1994-1995, about 221,000; in 1996-1997, about 263,000; and in 1999-2000, about 258,000. Taking into consideration that the country's population as a whole and the numbers of university-aged individuals is on the decline, this trend is even more pronounced. According to Popov, the main reasons for this lie in the expansion of public universities and the opening of private ones, the attraction of students from medium-sized towns to newly established university branches outside the major urban centers, the introduction of paid tuition and the subsequent lowering admission requirements for paid education, as well as the option for adult college graduates to obtain bachelor's and master's degrees in part-time, short-term university programs. This boom reached a peak in 1996-97, coinciding with the deepest financial, economic, and social crisis of the 1990s. The number of enrolled students is slightly declining, reflecting the decline of university In 1999-2000, there were 258,000 students of higher education, 57 percent of whom are women. Highest enrollment was in the economics and business programs, followed by the technological sciences. Some fields of the humanities and the social sciences, and particularly law, are also considered prestigious fields of study. An surprising fact is the large number of students enrolled in teacher training programs. Colleges experience a markedly low rate of enrollment: in 1999-2000, they had only 18,500 students. In the same year, the private higher schools had 27,500 students, or 10 percent of the total enrollment.

The faculty ranks consist of professor (full professor), docent (associate professor), assistant (assistant professor), and prepodavatel (lecturer). The total number of teaching faculty in 1999-2000 was 26,735, approximately 42 percent of which are women; there were 2,447 full professors, 19 percent of whom were women.

Higher education in Bulgaria is managed at two levels: national and institutional. The entities supervising higher education at the national level are the parliament (the National Assembly), the cabinet (Council of Ministers), and the Ministry of Education and Science. The parliament acts as the decision-making authority on the establishment, transformation, and the closing of public and private higher schools. It also annually allocates subsidies to public higher schools on the basis of the State Budget Act. The main actor in managing higher education on the national level is the Council of Ministers, which has wide-ranging prerogatives; the Ministry of Education and Science plays a more limited role. A National Evaluation and Accreditation Agency is established by the Council of Ministers as the specialized government authority for quality assessment and accreditation of higher school activities. The institutional level of management has acquired significant importance according to the principle of academic autonomy. The general assembly, the academic council, and the rector (president) are the main figures of importance.

Financing of higher education has been a most controversial issue of public discourse since 1989. Under communism, the general public was accustomed to the nearly egalitarian character of higher education, and grew to perceive it as a kind of social service. The popular expectation that the government should be the main source of funding higher education is still widespread and made it very difficult for those in power to renounce the government's function. The introduction of student paid education, parallel with the limited state funded enrollment, was met with considerable social and political resistance, despite the apparent need for additional sources of university revenue. The government continues to sponsor a limited number of students enrolled through the system of darzhavna porachka (state quota), a quantity of specialists perceived as necessary to sustain the continuity of manpower in every professional field. These spots are highly contested in the enrollment process and only the best candidates qualify for these positions. In addition, the schools of higher learning admit a great number of students who pay for their own tuition.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Under the communist regime, education was strongly centralized and placed entirely under the control of the state and the communist party. Since the early 1990s, an on-going process of decentralization has brought about considerable changes in this respect. Administration of basic and secondary education is effected on four levels: national, regional, municipal and school level.

The Ministry of Education and Science is a specialized body of the Council of Ministers for the administration of education on the national level. It determines and carries out the government policy in the field of education. The ministry plans activities related to the development of education in long-term programs and operation plans, organizes and coordinates the work of all administrative units and education establishments, and exercises control over all levels and types of schools in the country, including kindergartens and private schools. It interacts with other ministries and state departments in connection with the administration of schools which train specialists in respective spheres (e.g., engineering, mining, agriculture) and also conducts international activities in the field of education. There are 28 school inspectorates set up on a regional level which act as specialized territorial bodies of the Ministry of Education and Science. They exercise planning, coordination, and control functions over the work of the schools on the territory of a particular region. The staff of a regional inspectorate comprises experts in school administration as well as specialists in various academic subjects.

The municipal education bodies have a broad range of prerogatives to further educational policies on the territory of a city. According to article 36 of the Public Education Act, municipalities are responsible for the compulsory school education of children up to the age of 16; the health care and safety of schools and kindergartens; the funds for maintenance, construction, furnishing, and repair of schools, kindergartens, and servicing units; the funds for meeting the annual cost per schoolchild, remuneration of teachers, as well as for financial back-up of all sections of the syllabus of municipal kindergartens, schools, and servicing units; the appropriate conditions in canteens, boarding houses, recreation and sports facilities; for transportation for preschoolers, schoolchildren, and teachers; and for scholarships and grants for students. This makes the municipal level a very important part of the system of the administration of education. The school is a legal entity. During the 1990s, its autonomy in pedagogical, organizational, methodological, administrative, and managerial matters had been considerably extended. Schools are headed by a director (principal), who continues to teach on a reduced workload and has the status of a head-teacher. They are not purely a manager. The director and the pedagogicheski savet (pedagogical council) are the administrative bodies of the school. Since 1995-1996, an old Bulgarian tradition of establishing boards of school trustees as a link with the community has been restored. The boards of trustees comprise the school principal, teachers, parents, public figures, businessmen, among others. The National Assembly discussed a special law to regulate the functions of the school boards of trustees. Most schools also have a parents council, a students council, and a class councils which act in accordance with the age of the student body and the administrative needs of the school.

Education is funded from two major sources: the state budget through the Ministry of Education and Science and the local budgets through the municipal administrations. Funding is appropriated according to the level of education and type of school. Other sources of funding, such as donations and contributions from private companies and government entities are permitted by law. The government does not subsidize private schools. The relative share of expenditures for education in the gross domestic project has been steadily on the decline since the beginning of the 1990s. It reached 3.20 percent in 1998, which is half from the relative weight of educational expenses in 1992 (6.06 percent). Though, there was a modest increase of capital investment in education, for instance investment in repairs of existing school facilities and building new ones. The chronic deficit in the education budget made the practice of distributing free textbooks impossible to all students from first to eighth grade. Distribution of textbooks was then abandoned. Scientific research in the field of education is carried out at the Institute for Education as well as some other higher education institutions, universities, and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.

Nonformal Education

Under communism, formal classroom education was complemented by an extensive system of children and youth organizations and establishments. Since 1989, non-formal education has been gravely destabilized, owing this to ideological considerations, acute shortage of material and financial resources, and a lack of a strategy on the part of the education administration. There exists municipal children's centers, sports, art, and music schools, young technicians and agrobiologists labs, and centers for works with children, in Bulgaria. However, their number and capacity is considerably lower than the actual needs. There is an acute shortage of summer schools and activities for schoolchildren.

Legislation adopted in 1998 specified that distance education is a legitimate mode of study for obtaining a university degree. Approximately 85,000 students of higher education are enrolled in extra-mural courses. These students constitute a significant potential market for high quality distance education programs. Distance learning is institutionalized and operates within the framework of the National Center for Distance Education, established in 1994 by the Ministry of Education and Science. This is a consortium of 20 universities, with representatives of the Ministry of Education and Science, the Bulgarian National Television, and the Bulgarian National Radio. It is chaired by a representative of the PHARE program for Bulgaria. The role of the center includes development of distance learning strategy, research, development of materials, dissemination of information, promotion of contacts with external entities, and co-ordination of the implementation of the PHARE Multi-Country Program for Distance Learning.

Teaching Profession

A total of 68,482 teachers taught in all Bulgarian schools in 1999-2000: 23,820 in elementary schools (first through fourth grade); 32,479 in presecondary schools (fifth through eighth grade); and 12,283 in secondary schools (ninth through twelfth grade). Women constituted 82 percent of the overall number of teachers, which indicated a marked feminization of the teaching profession. The percentage of the teachers who possessed the necessary formal qualifications for teaching at a particular school level was higher than 98 percent. Elementary school teachers are required to have a specialist or a bachelor degree in the field nachalna uchilishtna pedagodika (elementary school pedagogy). There are six schools of higher learning in the country that train elementary school teachers.

There was a marked increase during the 1990s of the numbers of teachers at this level who hold advanced university degrees. In 1999-2000, some 14,948 (63 percent) of all elementary school teachers held higher than a specialist degree. The student-teacher ratio, which in the 1990s fluctuated between 14:1 and 18:1, is much higher in the cities. In the remote countryside it may drop as low as 6:1, but still the prevalent policy is to keep the schools open and hire teachers, thus preventing villages from depopulation.

Teachers at the presecondary and secondary level are required to have professional qualification in the subject(s) they teach accompanied by pedagogical qualification. A specialist, bachelor, or a master degree can establish these. There are specific demands for hiring teachers in vocation schools, including previous practice and specific training in the subject they teach. In 1999-2000, some 23,132 teachers (71 percent) at the pre-secondary school held bachelor and master degrees. The student-teacher ratio at this level is thirteen-fourteen. During the same year, the number of secondary school teachers holding bachelor and master degrees was 11,652 (94 percent) and the student-teacher ratio was 16:1 or 17:1. There is a well-established system of continuing education, and teachers are motivated to improve their qualifications by higher salaries.

Despite the fact that teachers' salaries had been relatively low for many years, the education system of Bulgaria managed under the stress of acute economic crisis to maintain professional integrity and prestige of the profession, and preserve the continuity of teaching. The overall number of teachers increased slightly in comparison with previous years and so did the numbers of students enrolled in teacher-training programs. There was a minimal decrease of the number of elementary school teachers, which corresponds to the demographic decline. There was a marked trend of improving teachers' qualifications.

Summary

Bulgaria has established democratic traditions in modern secular education, which date back to the middle of the nineteenth century. During the 1990s, the education system was subject to a thorough transformation running parallel to the nation's post-communist transition. The success of the education reform will shape the future of the nation in profound ways. Schools are expected to be an agent of democratization, grooming generations with better skills for critical thinking and public discourse. Transformed and modernized education is regarded as a vehicle of Bulgaria's integration in the European context.

The educational reform is an on-going process and more changes are bound to occur in the foreseeable future, while some of those that have been introduced have not come to fruition. Private schools at all levels, which have a considerably lower enrollment than the public ones and often face unfavorable attitudes, are yet to prove themselves as a viable alternative in education. Higher education is disconnected from secondary education; there is no system of pre-university establishments. The education system does not correspond to the needs of the labor market. Because of the shrinking of the latter, the schools overproduce specialists. The worst problem is the general lack of facilities to meet the challenges of a technology-based society and foster the qualifications that the nation needs in a high-tech environment.

Despite all difficulties, in the 1990s Bulgaria sustained the integrity of its education system and introduced considerable improvements. This positive trend is bound to continue because Bulgarian national psyche relates education closely to the ideas of progress and personal betterment.

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—Petya Nitzova