Botswana

Basic Data
Official Country Name:	Republic of Botswana
Region:	Africa
Population:	1,576,470
Language(s):	English, Setswana
Literacy Rate:	69.8%
Number of Primary Schools:	681
Public Expenditure on Education:	8.6%
Educational Enrollment:	Primary: 313,693
	Secondary: 111,134
	Higher: 8,850
Educational Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 108%
	Secondary: 65%
	Higher: 6%
Teachers:	Primary: 12,306
	Secondary: 6,670
	Higher: 765
Student-Teacher Ratio:	Primary: 25:1
	Secondary: 18:1
Female Enrollment Rate:	Primary: 108%
	Secondary: 68%
	Higher: 6%

History & Background

The Republic of Botswana was established in 1966 when Great Britain terminated its status as the colonial protector of Bechuanaland. Botswana is located in southern Africa, north of South Africa. It has a land area of 603,200 square kilometers. A landlocked nation, Botswana is completely dependent upon South Africa for access to ocean ports. Botswana is a member of the British Commonwealth and has a multiparty political system within a republican form of governance. In 1998 its economic growth rate was approximately 7 percent, with mineral resources being its principal exports.

The original inhabitants of Botswana were the Basarwa, more commonly known as the Bushmen. The Basarwa were nomadic hunters and gatherers who adapted well to harsh environments. Totally dependent upon the availability of water and game, the Basarwa were astutely cognizant of their environmental surroundings, and they developed ingenious techniques to extract what meager sustenance the land offered. They had no crops or domesticated animals and few possessions. Everything they owned was portable and necessary for sustaining daily existence. In 2000, approximately 60 percent of the 55,000 remaining Basarwa resided in Western Botswana. Their traditional way of life has been compromised by civilization, causing most to work on farms or cattle ranches; others live in settlements near water holes.

Sixty percent of Botswana's 1.4 million people claim Tswana heritage. The Tswana, a Bantu group, migrated into what is now Southeastern Botswana where environmental conditions were more hospitable to their sedentary way of life. They continued moving south and established village settlements in what is now the Transvaal Region of South Africa. Early in the nineteenth century, Zulu aggression pushed the Tswana towards the Western Kalahari where they regrouped and restructured their society around centralized towns surrounded by satellite villages. The Tswana are divided into eight principal groups governed by hereditary chiefs.

White Afrikaners, descendants of seventeenth century Dutch settlers, began colonizing the fertile lands of the Transvaal Region. British intervention protected the Tswana from Afrikaner domination. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, Britain extended its political control over the area from the coastal colony of Cape Town deeper into the higher plateau of the Transvaal region. In 1881 Britain subdued the Afrikaners and granted them independence in exchange for their allegiance to the crown, but opportunistic Afrikaners continued to migrate into traditional Tswana lands and captured the town of Mafikeneg.

Tswana leaders, Chiefs Sechele I and Mosielele, sent emissaries to petition Britain for protection. Britain was concerned because of Mafikeneg's strategic location as a planned rail link connecting mineral rich Zimbabwe with the port city of Cape Town. Therefore, in 1886 Britain established a protectorate over Bechuanaland. In return, the Tswana chiefs granted Cecil Rhodes' British South African Company (BSAC) a narrow strip of land for a railroad corridor that would run through the heart of Tswana settlements. The tribal chiefs reluctantly accepted that the railroad would bring Western technology and Christianity, which would change their traditional way of life.

Their concerns increased when Britain considered granting control over all of Bechuanaland to Rhodes' company in 1895. Tswana chiefs Bathoen Khama III and Sebele, accompanied by sympathetic missionaries, sailed to England to meet with Colonial Minister Joseph Chamberlain. They argued that BSAC would corrupt Tswana society by bringing in alcohol. The London Missionary Society (LMS) and other Christian groups forced the government to relent and maintain its protective status over Tswana lands.

Administration of the protectorate was headquartered in Mafikneg, the South African town in the Transvaal. The British resident commissioner was responsible to a High Commissioner of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland who, in turn, was accountable to the colonial office in London. Three advisory councils were established with the Tswana chiefs and their counselors in one group, white businessmen and farmers in the second, and a joint council of delegates from the other two. The tribes actively participated in the commercial economy evolving in the protectorate. Each chief was granted a tribal reserve with jurisdiction over all black residents with the authority to collect taxes. They retained a 10 percent commission of all monies collected, including the sale of cattle, draft oxen, and grain to Europeans.

The Anglican Church has always been an influential factor in Botswana's politics. This was especially evident during the protectorate period. Not satisfied with the slow rate of progress, the resident commissioner, Sir Charles Ray, tried to compromise the autonomy of the Tswana chiefs by proclaiming them local government officials who were accountable to colonial magistrates. It was feared, in 1923, that such arbitrary action would eventually lead to annexation by South Africa. The Church was a strong advocate for the chiefs; their involvement caused Ray to be removed from his position and the proclamation to be annulled. Botswana remained a British protectorate until independence was granted in 1966.

In 1997, about 27 percent of Botswana's 1.6 million people lived in urban areas. Because of Botswana's harsh environment, population density averages 2.3 persons per square kilometer. The dominant urban centers exist in the east while smaller cities are dispersed in the outlands bordering the Okavango Delta and Kalahari Desert. Approximately 4,300,000 people live in the eastern rim of the country along the railroad corridor connecting Zimbabwe with South Africa. In the 1800s, before protective status was conferred over the Tswana tribes and the railroad corridor created, the largest and most important towns were located in the east.

Until Botswana was granted independence, the affairs of the protectorate were administered from the South African city of Mafikeng. In 1964, with independence pending, it was decided to create a capital at the village Gaberones. The capital city, renamed Gaborone, was planned to accommodate 20,000 people; however, in 2000 it had almost 250,000 residents and was one of the world's fastest growing cities. Gabrone functions as Botswana's administrative, commercial, and industrial center. Typical of most large cities in developing countries, wealthier neighborhoods exist close to the city's center while shanty communities belonging to the urban poor and recent migrants are located in the outer suburbs.

According to the 1994 census, Botswana's birth rate was 45.6 per 1,000 persons, and the death rate was 11.1 per 1,000 persons. Approximately 40.6 percent of the population was less than 15 years of age, while 4.1 percent was 65 and older. Thus, Botswana's population could double by 2030. The rate of literacy has increased in Botswana. Adult female literacy increased from 44 percent in 1970 to 70 percent in 1998, and adult male literacy increased from 37 percent in 1970 to 67 percent in 1998.

Botswana is the country whose population has been most afflicted with the AIDS virus. A United Nations Development Report estimates that 36 percent of the country's population carry the virus. More conservative estimates place the figure in the high twenties. Botswana is making headway in fighting the disease by providing drugs to pregnant mothers. The United Kingdom Institute of Actuaries is making a detailed projection of what the epidemic may mean for Botswana and identifying the best ways to fund long-term health and social security costs. In 1999, the annual death rate from AIDS was 24,000. In 2000, life expectancy was 40.2 years for women and 39.9 years for the entire population. In 1993, there was 1 hospital bed per 434 persons. In 1994, there was an average of 1 physician for each 4,395 persons.

Diamonds were discovered in 1967, one year after Botswana gained its independence. Rather than lease extraction rights, the government negotiated a partnership with De Beers that gives 75 percent of the profits to Botswana. In 1966 mining contributed only 1 percent of gross domestic product (GDP); in 1998 it comprised 36 percent of GDP. Mining has been largely responsible for Botswana's rate of economic growth, which averaged 7.3 percent between 1970 and 1995, the highest in the developing world. While mining should remain stable, diamond output is reaching its peak, and further production gains may be limited. Tourism is the second vital component of Botswana's economy, but it could decline in the twenty-first century because of political unrest in neighboring countries.

Economic planners are working to expand the manufacturing sector, but a disappointment occurred in 1999 when an automobile plant, Motor Company of Botswana, closed. Vehicles had been Botswana's second largest export earner and a flagship for industrial development. The Botswana Export Development and Investment Authority (BEDIA) was created in 1999 to expand exports by offering foreign companies attractive incentives to establish businesses in the country. Eleven new companies, mostly textile firms from India and Sri Lanka, created 3,000 new jobs, which helped alleviate the severe unemployment problem.

Botswana is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). A Trade Protocol went into effect late in 2000. The protocol's goal is to remove tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade in the region by 2008. Tariff reduction could become a problem because South Africa and the European Union have their own trade agreements. There is concern that the SADC countries may be flooded with cheaper European imports.

In 2000 Botswana's rate of inflation was more than 10 percent for the first time since 1995. Because the bulk of Botswana's consumer goods are imported from South Africa, increased costs in consumer prices in South Africa have an adverse effect on Botswana. The rising cost of international oil has also generated inflationary pressure. The government is maintaining a tight monetary policy and resisting pressure to deflate its currency. Fiscal policy will focus on improving control over government expenditures while increasing receipts. Proposals have been made to replace a sales tax with a value added tax and to charge user fees for health services and education.

Fiscal discipline has enabled Botswana's independent central bank to accumulate substantial foreign exchange reserves and maintain a disciplined monetary policy. In 2000 Botswana was one of only five African states classified by the World Bank as a lower middle-income country. The key challenges faced by government and economic planners are the high levels of poverty and unemployment and the rapid increase in the prevalence of HIV and AIDS.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Botswana is a unitary republic with a national legislature, the National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage. The national government consists of the president who is selected by the assembly, his appointed vice-president, and cabinet officials. The Minister of Education is a member of the cabinet. There is also a House of Chiefs consisting of 15 hereditary leaders that advise on tribal matters separate from the assembly.

A multi-party system emerged soon after Botswana gained independence. The ruling party is the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP). The president in 2001, Festus Mogae, has been successful in calming factional politics within his party. Botswana's next national election is scheduled for October 2004. Mogae has confirmed that he plans to run for another presidential term, which has helped maintain unity within the BDP. Other political organizations include the Botswana Congress Party (BCP); Botswana Workers Front (BWF); Botswana People's Party (BPP); United Action Party (UAP); and the Botswana National Front (BNF), which is the main opposition group.

One problem that emerged immediately after Botswana became an independent country was financing the impoverished educational system left over from the protectorate. Primary education had been funded exclusively from tribal resources; some tribes had funded as much as 70 percent of educational costs. Government leaders were faced with two options: educating the majority of the population with the long-term goal of creating a literate society or providing limited educational facilities for a few that could occupy civil service jobs, which were then held primarily by expatriates. The second option was selected, and, as a result, income distribution became highly skewed. Critics argued that the educational policy was creating a small, privileged elitist educated group.

To address these social inequalities, the government commissioned a study in 1977. The National Commission on Education's recommendations received top priority, and Botswana began providing universal primary education and ensuring equality of educational opportunity at secondary and tertiary levels through the fair distribution of facilities, the provision of scholarships, and the use of an objective national selection system. However, the wide geographic dispersal of Botswana's population has made it difficult and costly to achieve universal education and expand the opportunities for economic development.

Educational System—Overview

Education in Botswana is free, but it is not compulsory. The Ministry of Education has authority over all of Botswana's educational structure except the University of Botswana. The educational structure mirrors that of the United Kingdom: there is universal access to primary and junior secondary school, but a process of academic selectivity reduces entrance to the senior secondary school and the university. However, educational curricula incorporate prevocational preparation in the junior and senior secondary schools.

In 2001 Botswana's education system was comprised of seven years of primary education, three years of junior secondary education, and two years of senior secondary education. Each year at the primary level is a Standard, and each secondary level is a Form. This system was implemented in 1995 as a result of a 1993 National Education Commission study. Botswana's basic education program is comprised of the primary and junior secondary levels.

Primary education is the most important stage in the educational system, and the government strives to make this level of education accessible to everyone. One central objective of primary education is for children to be literate first in Setswana and then in English. Other goals are for children to become knowledgeable in mathematics and to have a command of science and social studies. From 1991 to 1997, the number of students completing the primary level and entering junior secondary increased from 65.0 percent to 98.5 percent.

Completing the Junior Certificate program may lead to admission to the senior secondary school program. Only those pupils whose grades are high enough on the Junior Certificate Examination are admitted to the senior secondary program. From 1991 to 1994, the number of students admitted to senior secondary schools increased from 28 to 34 percent. Botswana is in the process of building unified secondary schools, Form I to Form V, in the remote areas of the country to increase access to a senior secondary education.

Education has been given priority in the national budget. In the 1994-1995 financial year, the Ministry of Education received 10 percent of the national budget. The Department of Secondary Education and Teacher Training and Development shared 64 percent, and the ministry headquarters, which was responsible for four projects including the University of Botswana and Brigades development, received 25 percent. The 11 percent balance was spent on improving facilities and functions under the technical education, nonformal education, curriculum development, and evaluation and special education departments. The Ministry of Education expanded from a small unit of government in 1966 to one that looks after the educational needs of hundreds of thousands students from primary to tertiary levels. In addition, the ministry writes all required textbooks. The ministry's emphasis is on training qualified teachers, developing a diversified curriculum, and expanding facilities to meet the national commitment of universal education. The concern for achieving national literacy is underscored by the fact that 40.6 percent of the country's population is under the age of 15.

Botswana's first educational policy, called Education for Kagisano (Social Harmony), guided the country's educational development and administration from 1977 to 1993. In the early 1990s, the recognition that the country's socioeconomic situation had changed significantly resulted in a review of policies and strategies for Botswana's educational development. In March 1994, the Minister of Education presented Government Paper No. 2, The Revised National Policy on Education. Its recommendations will provide direction for Botswana's educational system until 2020.

The objectives of the new policy are to review the current education system and its relevance and to identify problems and strategies for its further development in the context of Botswana's changing and complex economy; to reexamine the structure of the education system to guarantee universal access to primary and junior secondary education, while consolidating and vocationalising the curriculum content at these levels; to advise on ways to ensure the education system is sensitive and responsive to the people's wishes and the country's manpower requirements; to study the various methods of streaming into vocational and academic groups at the senior secondary level; to study how the senior secondary structure relates to the University of Botswana degree programs and to determine how the two programs may best be reconciled; to advise on the organization and diversification of the secondary school curricula to prepare students who do not continue with higher education; and to make recommendations to the government on the best and most cost-effective methods of implementing the recommendations proposed by the Ministry of Education.

The education system makes minimal provisions for children with disabilities. Few disabled children are integrated in regular school classes, and there is a limited special education curriculum. Parents must pay fees to nongovernmental organizations if their special needs children are educated. However, the government has committed to intensify efforts to educate these children by paying the nongovernmental organizations' fees.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preschool education is available only to those children whose parents can afford to send them to expensive private day care centers and preschools. The overwhelming majority of parents have no access to preschool programs. The University of Botswana's Primary Education Department and Home Economics Education Department offer courses for students seeking the Baccalaureate Degree in Education. Following a 1998 study reporting that the university lacked a comprehensive plan and policy on preschool education and that the Department of Primary Education did not offer a full-fledged program in preschool education, the Department of Home Economics Education opened a day care center. The center, managed by students as part of their curriculum, is for children of the university's employees who do not have the financial resources to send their children to other day care centers.

Children begin the seven-year primary education program at age six. Botswana's education system recognizes that primary education is the foundation upon which future learning is based. Setswana and English are the only two languages taught in the schools. Setswana is the language of instruction for the first four years of primary school, so those not speaking it, such as the Basarwa children, choose not to attend.

The primary curriculum is based on the country's principles and goals of democracy and is designed to prepare children for life after they have completed school. Teachers continually assess their students and provide remediation when needed. At the end of the primary program, Standard VII, students take the Primary School Leaving Examination. Those who pass this examination enter the junior secondary schools. The government increased the number of primary schools from 537 in 1986 to 669 in 1994 as part of their plan to achieve universal access to education, but there is a noticeable shortage of classrooms in the rural areas.

By 1994 primary school enrollment was 310,050, an increase of more than 30 percent from the 1986 enrollment of 235,941 students. In 1990 the Ministry of Education projected a primary school enrollment of 342,155 students by 1994; the 1994 enrollment figure was just 9.6 percent below this projected number. In 1986 there were 7,324 primary teachers, and the student-teacher ratio was 32:1. By 1994 the number of primary teachers had increased to 11,726, and the student-teacher ratio had dropped to 26:1.

Secondary Education

Botswana's secondary education program has two levels: the three-year junior secondary program and the two-year senior secondary program. Each year is a Form; Forms I to III are completed in junior secondary and Forms IV and V in senior secondary. In 1996 the junior secondary level was expanded from two years to three years so that it would align with the 1994 revision of the government's basic education policy to emphasize prevocational preparation. Prevocational preparation is implemented by including vocational applications in academic subjects; providing more practical elective courses for students; emphasizing skills relevant to work situations including problem solving, team work, self-identity, and computing; offering both curricular and co-curricular activities that focus on the organization and demands of working life; and offering career guidance and counseling.

In 1997, about 98 percent of students leaving primary school enrolled in junior secondary schools, which is a significant increase from 1991 when only 65 percent of those completing primary school entered a junior secondary school. One reason for this change is the increase in the number of junior secondary schools. In 1977 there were 32 junior secondary schools in Botswana; by 1990 the number had increased to 150. In 1977 only 35 percent of those completing primary school had access to a junior secondary school. In 1991, about 95 percent of the students completing primary school had access to a junior secondary school.

There is a nationwide network of community-based junior secondary schools. Each community elects a Board of Governors that oversees the school. Ex-officio members, mainly government workers, also serve as on these boards. The Botswana government supports community schools by providing assistance for capital projects and recurrent costs, providing teaching staff, supervising construction, and housing teachers. Communities are expected to employ ancillary staff and maintain school buildings.

The majority of students not completing the secondary level are boys who must herd cattle and girls who become pregnant. For every 100 girls dropping out due to pregnancy, only 10 return. There is a gap in academic performance between girls and boys, and the underachievement of girls impacts their opportunities for employment and thus exacerbates gender inequality.

Admission to senior secondary schools is determined by student performance in the junior secondary school. The number of students admitted to the senior secondary school has increased from 28 percent in 1994 to 34 percent in 1997. The government's goal is to increase access to senior secondary schools by 50 percent before the year 2003. To accomplish this, unified secondary schools for Forms I to V will be built in the remotest areas, and larger senior secondary schools will be constructed in the urban areas.

The Ministry of Education provides secondary school curricula guidelines. The headmaster of each school, in consultation with his staff, determines the actual options that will be offered. The junior level prescribes a minimum of 10 and a maximum of 11 subjects. All students must take eight core subjects: English, Setswana, social studies, mathematics, integrated science, design and technology, agriculture, and moral education. Students must also select a minimum of two and a maximum of three of the following optional subjects: home economics, commerce, principles of accounts/bookkeeping and office skills, religious education, third language, art, music, and physical education. The purpose of this broad curriculum is to meet the needs of students who enter the junior secondary school having a wide range of differing abilities.

In 1984 a science curriculum, Science by Investigation in Botswana, was introduced. The curriculum consists of 15 units inclusive of biological and earth science subjects. Pupils at both junior and senior secondary levels are encouraged to participate in science clubs so they can apply classroom knowledge to practical experiences. Supporting this curriculum is the Botswana Science Association (BOTSA), which has made it possible for students to exhibit their projects in annual science fairs.

There has always been an agricultural program in the junior secondary school, but it has been expanded since the junior secondary program was increased to three years. Vegetable production is a required topic; optional topics include bee keeping, ostrich farming, fish farming, and other forms of poultry husbandry. The agricultural program in the senior secondary school offers basic research and technical report writing skills through what is referred to as project methods of teaching. The Botswana Agriculture Teachers Association organizes fairs at both regional and national levels. These fairs enable schools to reach out to the public and demonstrate what students can produce if given adequate support. The agrarian program is not meant to be vocational. Its main objective is for students to have knowledge and skills they can apply on a daily basis that will have a positive impact on their environment.

Higher Education

The University of Botswana is located in Gaberone. Until 1975 the University College of Botswana was part of the Regional University of Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland. When Lesotho dropped out, Botswana and Swaziland developed as a joint university until 1982 when collective planning ceased and the two institutions separated. The University of Botswana admits approximately 3,000 new students annually. All those receiving first and second class in their final senior secondary examinations are eligible to be admitted. Enrollment for the 1999-2000 academic year was 9,500 students.

By act of Botswana's Parliament, the university was established as a separate corporation. The institution is in complete control of its funds and can govern itself without direct intervention from the State. The University of Botswana directly controls its staff salaries, promotions, employment, and staff expulsion. It can decide student policy and programs. The university's budget is primarily financed by a government endowment and through government scholarships that pay full fees and personal allowances to all secondary school graduates who qualify academically. In 1990-1991 government subvention provided 74 percent of the university's revenue.

The University of Botswana offers a broad range of educational programs. Most are on the undergraduate level. Students can earn certificates for professions and career studies or baccalaureate degrees in accounting and business studies, engineering, law, library science, nursing, social work, and most of the basic arts and sciences areas. Baccalaureate degrees are also offered in home economics, agricultural science, and engineering and technology. Graduate degrees at the master's level are offered in education, business administration, public administration, and in arts and sciences.

In 1996 Botswana Polytechnic was incorporated into the University of Botswana as the Faculty of Engineering and Technology. Various ministries cooperate with the university to support the technical programs. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs share the responsibility of oversee the provision of craft training.

Non-university vocational training is provided at government Vocational Training Centers (VTCs). Enrollment is open to Botswana's employed and unemployed citizens. These centers are strategically located in development areas, which have diversified major industrial and commercial infrastructures. VTCs offer short courses during the day, evening, and weekends for full-time trainees and apprentices. Courses include mechanical, automotive, textile, computing, construction, electrical, commercial trades, and hotel/catering. The VTCs emphasize the importance of practical training and experience. The programs require apprentices to spend three months at a VTC and nine months at job training supervised by the Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs.

Aided by the British Broadcasting Corporation, Botswana's national television channel opened in the summer of 2000; however, much of the country will have access only to radio for some time because it is expensive to run lines to sparsely populated remote areas. Botswana Telecommunications Authority provides Intersawana, radio-based Internet connectivity throughout Botswana and the University of Botswana. The service is funded by the United States through the Education Democracy and Development Initiative, which supports delivering teaching and learning programs through various communication technologies including distance learning. Secretary of State Madeline Albright signed the agreement on behalf of President Clinton in December 2000 at the University of Botswana.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

With the exception of the University of Botswana, the Ministry of Education has authority over Botswana's educational structure. The Department of Curriculum Development plans, develops, and evaluates school curricula for primary and for junior and senior secondary schools. Each of the department's five divisions has a specific responsibility. The Curriculum Development Division operates through subject panels and promotes consultation in the development of educational programs. This division is responsible for reviewing, revising, and developing syllabi; for creating instructional materials; and for adapting published materials for curriculum needs. The Educational Publications Division is the public relations division of the ministry. It also provides supplementary materials for teachers and pupils. The Guidance and Counseling Division provides programs for career guidance and teacher training and is involved in material development. The Teaching Aid Production Division develops teaching aids primarily for use at the primary levels. These aids may be print materials or other instructional items, such as those used in science and mathematics instruction. The Educational Broadcasting Division develops radio lessons to support the school curriculum and provides teachers with notes to help them use the radio lessons. Most of these lessons are developed for the primary level.

The Examinations, Research, and Testing Division was at one time a part of the Curriculum Development and Evaluation Division, but has since become a semiautonomous unit. This division designs and implements national examination programs for primary and secondary systems and ensures that the exams meet acceptable standards in operational procedures as well as in technical quality. The division is also responsible for training teachers to develop criterion-referenced tests for classroom assessments.

The National Examination Board of the Ministry of Education conducts the Junior Certificate examinations in October and November. The "O" level examinations are written twice a year in June and November and administered by the Examinations, Research, and Testing Division.

Since 1987 public education in Botswana has been free except for the cost of school uniforms and other incidentals. However, impoverished parents cannot buy school uniforms for their children. Although a uniform is not required, not wearing one subjects individuals to peer pressure so often these children do not attend school. Education has always been given priority in national budgets. In the 1991-1992 national recurrent budget, 22.6 percent was for education. This increased to 30.5 percent the following year. An estimated 27 percent of government expenditures in 1999-2000 were spent on education. In 2000 education minister George Kgoroba proposed partial school fees, but it was doubtful such charges would be approved because of the government's financial reserves and the low economic status of many citizens. There have been some changes in school management, however, such as the privatization of catering services.

In 1992 the president commissioned a study to prioritize manpower needs essential to the Botswana's development. The most critical manpower shortage areas were in science and technical fields: medicine, accounting, engineering, actuarial science, and teaching of mathematics, science, and Setswana. The next most critical area was for vocations that seem unattractive to students: paramedical, teaching, and sub-professionals. The category prioritized as the third most critical identified vocations where there were too few individuals to meet the country's needs: law, public administration, human resource management, psychology, hotel and tourism, and fashion design. The fourth category identified those areas seen as beneficial to society and the economy but of less priority: library information systems, sociology, and land board administration. The final category identified those occupations described as beneficial to an individual or a small section of the economy: cosmetology, performing arts, and interior design.

In 1995 a Grant/Loan Scheme administered by the Department of Student Placement and Welfare (DSPW) went into effect. The program is designed to attract more students into critical occupations and professions. Students entering high priority areas receive aid priorities over those in areas deemed less essential. Career guidance units disseminate career related information and offer more professional student counseling. The number of students administered by the DSPW grew from 3,000 in 1991 to more than 4,300 in 1995. The projected number for 2001 is 7,000.

Another function of the DSPW is administrating programs for students who travel to other countries, primarily the United Kingdom or the United States, as part of their education. When the DSPW became responsible for these students, there were approximately 100 students traveling abroad, all in either the United Kingdom or the United States. In 2000, there were approximately 500 students in the United Kingdom and 300 in the United States.

Nonformal Education

Botswana Extension College was founded in 1973 as part of the Ministry of Education. In 1978 the Department of Nonformal Education was created and incorporated into the Botswana Extension College. The department supplements secondary level education by offering Junior Certificate and Cambridge "O" Level courses via distance learning.

In 1980 literacy programs began for the then 250,000 men, women, and youths who were illiterate or unable to do simple computations. In the program's first year, 7,676 individuals enrolled in the four regional districts. The number of participants increased steadily until 1986 when enrollments leveled. One part of the literacy program is the Ditiro tsa Ditlhabololo (Home Economics Course); district adult education officers work with extension teams and village development committees to create locally-oriented activities.

Brigades Centers are autonomous, communitybased, and predominately rural organizations that provide practical on the job training for Botswana youth. Their primary objective is to develop self-reliant individuals. Training is offered in automechanics, agriculture, construction, office studies, carpentry, electrical, drafting, general maintenance, machinery, plumbing, tannery, textiles, and welding. In 1999 there were 37 registered Brigades with 33 actively engaged in training.

Until 1999 graduates of the senior secondary school system were required to perform Trelo Setshaba (National Service) for one year. The government guaranteed places at the University of Botswana for those who completed the program. The service program began in 1980 as a pilot program with 28 participants; by 1991 there were more than 6,000 participants. The Ministry of Presidential Affairs and Public Administration managed the program; by the late 1990s, there were many logistical and budget problems that eventually led to the program's termination. National Service was designed to provide secondary graduates with opportunities to mature more and to explore possible career choices. They lived and worked in rural areas and remote places where more than 80 percent of Botswana's population reside. The program provided educated workers who assisted with government programs and bridged gaps between urban and rural dwellers, as well as between the educated and uneducated.

When National Service ended in 1999, the University of Botswana could not accommodate the unusually large freshman class comprised of those who had completed National Service and those who had just graduated from senior secondary schools. To accommodate everyone, the university switched some courses and sent some students to universities outside of Botswana but within the Southern African Development Community region. The national parliament appropriated additional funds for these expenses.

Teaching Profession

Two years after Botswana gained its independence, there were 1,791 primary level teachers, but 1,114 of these were not certified teachers. By 1985 the number of primary level teachers had increased to 6,980, and 74.3 percent were certified. The percentage of certified primary teachers has continued to increase. In 1993, about 83 percent of the 11,190 primary level teachers were certified. This trend is also found at the secondary level. In 1985 there were 1,368 secondary teachers; 72.3 percent of these were certified. In 1993 there were 4,391 secondary teachers; 81.9 percent of these were certified.

In 1985, about 77 percent of the primary level teachers were female. Of these, 21 percent were not certified. In 1993, about 76 percent of the primary teachers were female, but the percentage of uncertified female teachers decreased to 9.0 percent. That same year 8.0 percent of the male primary teachers were not certified. In 1985, about 43 percent of the 1,368 secondary teachers were female; 13.0 percent of these were not certified. That same year 14.0 percent of the male secondary teachers were not certified. In 1993, about 42 percent of the 4,391 secondary teachers were female. That year only 9.0 percent of male and female teachers were not certified.

Botswana has four primary level and two secondary level colleges of education. With the exception of the Botswana College of Agriculture, which has its own teacher-training program, all of the teacher training institutions (TEIs) are affiliated with the University of Botswana. The University has a mandate from the Ministry of Education to oversee the maintenance of academic and professional standards of diplomas and certificates for which students in the TEIs are prepared. Boards and committees systematically consult and participate in the decision-making process between the university and the ministry. The TEIs are provided with advice, guidance, technical, and qualitative capacities. Therefore, all teachers are trained in programs validated by the University. The University has the authority to implement whatever is necessary to achieve universal education; however, Botswana's government controls all funding.

African tradition dictates strict divisions of responsibility and positions of authority. Females have lower status than males. Males dominate the University of Botswana's Faculty of Education. It is only in the primary level colleges that the majority of lecturers and heads of departments are women. Male department heads lead in those areas traditionally seen as the responsibility of males, such as engineering and technology. Female department heads lead in areas such as primary, home economics, and nursing education.

Policy makers at the Ministry of Education are aware of hierarchies and gender inequities within the University and the TEIs. To address these problems, the University of Botswana established the Department of Primary Education, which, since 1980, has offered diploma courses to primary school teachers in order to replace expatriate lecturers in the TEIs. Enrollment in the University's Master's of Education program increases every year. In 1994 the government upgraded the primary level teachers colleges by phasing out the certificate program and replacing it with a diploma. In 1990 the Faculty of Education established the Gender and Education Committee (GEC), which is committed to encourage and support gender reform within the University as well as in schools and in the Ministry of Education. The University of Botswana is the only education establishment in the country with a gender policy.

Summary

Botswana is a unique country in Africa because of its sustained economic growth and political stability. Education is free, but not compulsory. While Botswana's government strives for universal education, there are barriers that must be overcome. In addition to overcrowded school facilities, the efficiency and effectiveness of teacher education is constrained by the centralized and hierarchical nature of educational administration. The Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation is in charge of basic educational curriculum development with only a minimal involvement of teachers, teacher training institutions, and the University of Botswana.

Many of Botswana's problems exist because of the republic's rapid transition from a rural to a technologically developing country. While the problems are great, they do not appear to be insurmountable. The motto on the University of Botswana's Coat of Arms, Thuto Ke Thebe (Education Is A Shield), underscores the important role education has in the country.

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—Sherman E. Silverman