Frederick II (The Great), King of Prussia
FREDERICK II (THE GREAT), KING OF PRUSSIA
Reigned 1740 to 1786; b. Berlin, Jan. 24, 1712; d. Potsdam, Aug. 17, 1786.
Early Life. He was the oldest of four surviving sons born to King Frederick William I of Prussia and Princess Sophia Dorothea of Hanover. His tutor, Duhan de Jandun, instilled in him a deep love of French culture. The curriculum set up for the crown prince by his father, the "Soldier King," strongly emphasized military training. Frederick rebelled against the Spartan drill and the king's stern Calvinism. After the failure of an attempt to flee to England (Aug. 4, 1730), he was arrested and imprisioned in the fortress of Kuestrin. Completely submitting to his father's will, he was freed after a year. Still under restrictions, he was gradually reinstated. In 1733 he married Elizabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern. The marriage was not harmonious and remained childless. In Rheinsberg, an estate he had received from his father, the crown prince spent the happiest years of his life. Here he found time to study and to write. Enjoying the company of the congenial intelligentsia, he corresponded with many prominent men of letters, such as Voltaire. The best-known of his early writings is Antimachiavel (1740), a lofty refutation of immorality in politics.
Kingship. He succeeded to his father's throne May 31, 1740. At the beginning of his 46-year reign Frederick II abolished the use of torture for criminals and lifted press censorship. The death of the Hapsburg Emperor Charles VI and the accession of Maria Theresa provided Frederick with the opportunity of renewing ancient but questionable claims to some Silesian territories. He invaded Silesia (December 1740) and initiated the War of the Austrian Succession, which involved the electors of Bavaria and Saxony as well as the kings of England and France. By the Treaty of Dresden (1745) Frederick remained in possession of Silesia but acknowledged Maria Theresa's husband (Francis of Lorraine) as Holy Roman
emperor. The acquisition of Silesia made Prussia a European power. During the next 11 years Frederick made remarkable efforts to improve agriculture and manufacturing. He balanced the budget, produced a substantial surplus, and, in an age of intense dynastic conflict and shifting alliances, increased his army and concluded the convention of Westminster with England. In the meantime, France, Russia, and some smaller states became Austria's allies. Frederick's sudden invasion of Saxony precipitated the Seven Years' War (1756–63). Strategy and courage enabled him to oppose a powerful coalition and the death of Tsarina Elizabeth removed Russia from the war and saved Frederick. The Peace of Hubertusburg restored the status quo. Peace, save for the brief war over the Bavarian Succession (1778–79) and the first partition of Poland (1772), by which he gained Western Prussia (without Danzig and Thorn), characterized his remaining years. Dismissing the divine theory of kingship, Frederick II considered himself the "first servant of the State." He worked incessantly for the welfare of his subjects. Many of his reforms were directed to the administration of justice. The independence of law courts was established as a principle. But Frederick was an avowed cynic who believed in power and in power alone. He was an autocrat whose tight personal rule was sustained by the strict, though grudging, obedience of the noble bureaucrats. Contemptuous of all beliefs, he practiced religious toleration, but there was no freedom of thought in Prussia. For the achievements of German culture Frederick had nothing but scorn—a feeling that was reciprocated by the leading German intellectuals. The myth of Frederick's "German mission" has long been shattered.
Religious Policy. His relations with the Catholic Church remained strained despite some friendly gestures. When he annexed Silesia, he solemnly promised to respect the Catholic religion, to which about half of his new subjects adhered. But soon discriminatory laws and fiscal policies caused deep concern. The introduction of Prussia's anticlerical marriage practice was bitterly resented. Conforming to the pattern of absolutism, he used (and misused) his prerogatives to interfere in the internal affairs of the Diocese of Breslau, and to establish a tight control over the hierarchy and benefices. He disregarded the fact that such prerogatives were derived from privileges granted only to Catholic sovereigns on the basis of a treaty with the Holy See. Toward the Jesuits he assumed a benevolent attitude after the suppression of their order. The members of the extinct society were encouraged to carry on their work as educators.
Bibliography: g. ritter, Friedrich der Grosse (3d ed. Heidelberg 1954). g. p. gooch, Frederick the Great (New York 1947). e. simon, The Making of Frederick the Great (Boston 1963). For Frederick II's relations with the Catholic Church see l. pastor, The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, (London–St. Louis 1938–61) 36, 38, 39. Oeuvres, 30 v., ed. j. d. e. preuss et al. (Berlin 1846–57); Politische Correspondenz, 46 v., ed. g. droysen et al. (Berlin 1879–1939). r. b. asprey, Frederick the Great: The Magnificent Enigma (New York 1986). r. peyrefitte, Voltaire et Frédéric II (Paris 1992). d. e. showalter, The Wars of Frederick the Great (London and New York 1996). g. macdonogh, Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters (New York 2000). d. fraser, Frederick the Great: King of Prussia (New York 2000). t. schieder, Frederick the Great, ed. and trans. by s. berkeley and h. m. scott (New York 2000).
[h. w. l. freudenthal]