Today's Labor Force

views updated

TODAY'S LABOR FORCE

The American labor force grew rapidly from 1970 to 2007. This period saw the entry of the postWorld War II baby-boom generation into the labor force, an increase in the percentage of women working outside the home, and the addition to the labor force of workers gained through immigration. Statistics from the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) show that the number of workers in the American civilian noninstitutionalized labor force (workers not in the army, school, jail, or mental health facilities) almost doubled from 82.8 million men and women in 1970 to 153.1 million men and women in 2007. (See Table 1.1.) These statistics include those who are working part or full time and those who are unemployed but actively looking for jobs. Although the number of workers rose by 85%, the proportion of the civilian noninstitutional population in the labor force rose less. In 1970, 60.4% of the civilian noninstitutional population was in the labor force; by 2007, 66% of the civilian noninstitutional population was in the labor force.

GENDER, AGE, RACE, AND ETHNIC ORIGIN

Gender

In 2007 nearly three-quarters of the male population (73.2%) and three-fifths of the female population (59.3%) aged sixteen years and older participated in the labor force. (See Table 1.2.) The number of men increased from 54.6 million in 1973 to 82.1 million in 2007, a 50.4% increase. Among women in the civilian labor force, however, the increase was more dramatic. In 1973, 34.8 million women were employed or seeking employment, compared with 71 million in 2007, a 104% increase. These numbers reveal a shift in the proportions of women and men in the labor force: 78.8% of men were counted among the civilian labor force in 1973, compared with 73.2% by 2007. At the same time, the percentage of women participating in the labor force increased from 44.7% in 1973 to 59.3% in 2007. In 1973 only 34.8 million of 89.4 million people in the labor force, or 38.9%, were women. By 2007, 46.4% of the labor force was female.

Race and Ethnicity

In 2007 Hispanics had the highest labor force participation rate of all races or ethnicities. In that year, 21.6 million Hispanics were in the labor force, for a labor force participation rate of 68.8%. (See Table 1.3.) Asians had the next highest labor force participation rate in 2007; 7.1 million Asians were in the labor force in that year, for a labor force participation rate of 66.5%. (See Table 1.4.) Whites had a very slightly lower labor force participation rate. In 2007, 124.9 million whites were in the labor force, for a labor force participation rate of 66.4%. African-Americans had the lowest labor force participation rate. In 2007, 17.5 million African-Americans were in the labor force, for a labor force participation rate of 63.7%.

African-American women over twenty years of age (64%) were somewhat more likely to be in the labor force than white women (60.1%), Asian women (60.7%), or Hispanic women (58.8%) of the same age. (See Table 1.4 and Table 1.3.) A somewhat higher percentage of white men twenty years and older (76.3%) were in the labor force compared with African-American men (71.2%). Asian-American men and Hispanic men twenty years of age and over participated in the labor force at the highest rates in 2007 (78.5% and 84.7%, respectively).

While Hispanic men had the highest labor participation rates of any group in 2007, that rate varied by country of origin. Hispanic men age twenty and over from Mexico had the highest labor force participation rate, at 86.4%. (See Table 1.3.) Cuban men and Puerto Rican men also had high labor force participation rates, at 74.2% and 73.2%, respectively, but not as high as Mexican men.

TABLE 1.1
Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, selected years, 19502007

[Numbers in thousands]
Civilian labor force
EmployedUnemployed
YearCivilian noninstitutional populationTotalPercent of populationTotalPercent of populationAgricultureNonagricultural industriesNumberPercent of labor forceNot in labor force
*Not strictly comparable with data for prior years.
SOURCE: Adapted from 1. Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population, 1942 to Date, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat1.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Persons 16 years of age and over
1950104,99562,20859.258,91856.17,16051,7583,2885.342,787
1955109,68365,02359.362,17056.76,45055,7222,8524.444,660
1960*117,24569,62859.465,77856.15,45860,3183,8525.547,617
1965126,51374,45558.971,08856.24,36166,7263,3664.552,058
1970137,08582,77160.478,67857.43,46375,2154,0934.954,315
1975153,15393,77461.285,84656.13,40882,4387,9298.559,377
1980167,745106,94063.899,30259.23,36495,9387,6377.160,806
1985178,206115,46164.8107,15060.13,179103,9718,3127.262,744
1990*189,164125,84066.5118,79362.83,223115,5707,0475.663,324
1995198,584132,30466.6124,90062.93,440121,4607,4045.666,280
2000*212,577142,58367.1136,89164.42,464134,4275,6924.069,994
2005*226,082149,32066.0141,73062.72,197139,5327,5915.176,762
2006*228,815151,42866.2144,42763.12,206142,2217,0014.677,387
2007*231,867153,12466.0146,04763.02,095143,9527,0784.678,743
TABLE 1.2
Employment status of the population 16 years and over, by sex, selected years, 19732007

[Numbers in thousands]
Civilian labor force
EmployedUnemployed
YearCivilian noninstitutional populationTotalPercent of populationTotalPercent of populationAgricultureNonagricultural industriesNumberPercent of labor forceNot in labor force
*Not strictly comparable with data for prior years.
SOURCE: Adapted from 2. Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population 16 Years and over by Sex, 1973 to Date, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat2.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Men
1973*69,29254,62478.852,34975.52,84749,5022,2754.214,667
197572,29156,29977.951,85771.72,82449,0324,4427.915,993
198079,39861,45377.457,18672.02,70954,4774,2676.917,945
198584,46964,41176.359,89170.92,53557,3564,5217.020,058
1990*90,37769,01176.465,10472.02,54662,5593,9065.721,367
199595,17871,36075.067,37770.82,55964,8183,9835.623,818
2000*101,96476,28074.873,30571.91,86171,4442,9753.925,684
2005*109,15180,03373.375,97369.61,65474,3194,0595.129,119
2006*110,60581,25573.577,50270.11,66375,8383,7534.629,350
2007*112,17382,13673.278,25469.81,60476,6503,8824.730,036
Women
1973*77,80434,80444.732,71542.062232,0932,0896.043,000
197580,86037,47546.333,98942.058433,4043,4869.343,386
198088,34845,48751.542,11747.765641,4613,3707.442,861
198593,73651,05054.547,25950.464446,6153,7917.442,686
1990*98,78756,82957.553,68954.367853,0113,1405.541,957
1995103,40660,94458.957,52355.688156,6423,4215.642,462
2000*110,61366,30359.963,58657.560262,9832,7174.144,310
2005*116,93169,28859.365,75756.254465,2133,5315.147,643
2006*118,21070,17359.466,92556.654366,3823,2474.648,037
2007*119,69470,98859.367,79256.649067,3023,1964.548,707
TABLE 1.3
Employment status of the Hispanic population, by sex, age, and detailed ethnic group, 200607

[Numbers in thousands]
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
TotalaMexican originPuerto Rican originCuban origin
Employment status, sex, and age20062007200620072006200720062007
a Includes persons of Central or South American origin and of other Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, not shown separately.
b Data not shown where base is less than 35,000.
Note: Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: 6. Employment Status of the Hispanic or Latino Population by Sex, Age, and Detailed Ethnic Group, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat6.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Total
Civilian noninstitutional population30,10331,38319,03619,7702,6002,7111,3261,421
Civilian labor force20,69421,60213,15813,6721,5991,684807898
Percent of population68.768.869.169.261.562.160.963.2
Employed19,61320,38212,47712,9081,4841,551778862
Unemployed1,0811,2206817641151332936
Unemployment rate5.25.65.25.67.27.93.64.0
Not in labor force9,4099,7815,8776,0981,0011,027519523
Men, 16 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population15,47316,15410,03710,4151,2081,252646712
Civilian labor force12,48813,0058,2518,553842865468511
Percent of population80.780.582.282.169.769.172.471.7
Employed11,88712,3107,8638,122782791452490
Unemployed60169538843160741621
Unemployment rate4.85.34.75.07.28.53.34.1
Not in labor force2,9853,1491,7871,862366387178201
Men, 20 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population14,04614,6499,0869,4201,0811,119612670
Civilian labor force11,88812,4037,8338,134797819458497
Percent of population84.684.786.286.473.773.274.874.1
Employed11,39111,8277,5157,779749761445478
Unemployed49757631835648581318
Unemployment rate4.24.64.14.46.17.12.93.7
Not in labor force2,1572,2461,2531,285284300154173
Women, 16 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population14,63015,2298,9989,3551,3921,459680709
Civilian labor force8,2068,5974,9075,119757819339387
Percent of population56.156.554.554.754.456.149.954.6
Employed7,7258,0724,6144,786702760326372
Unemployed48052529433355601315
Unemployment rate5.96.16.06.57.27.33.93.9
Not in labor force6,4246,6324,0914,236635640340322
Women, 20 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population13,26213,7918,0978,3841,2671,325634671
Civilian labor force7,7358,1084,5964,784714770327380
Percent of population58.358.856.857.156.458.151.656.6
Employed7,3217,6624,3514,508666720315366
Unemployed41444624627648501214
Unemployment rate5.35.55.35.86.86.53.73.7
Not in labor force5,5275,6823,5013,600553555307291
Both sexes, 16 to 19 years
Civilian noninstitutional population2,7962,9441,8531,9672522677980
Civilian labor force1,0711,09172975388952121
Percent of population38.337.139.338.334.935.526.726.6
Employed90089461162170691818
Unemployed170197118132182534
Unemployment rate15.918.116.217.620.926.8bb
Not in labor force1,7251,8531,1241,2131641725859

Age

The BLS reported in Employment and Earnings (January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsa2007.pdf) that Americans between the ages of twenty-five and fifty-four were the most likely age group to be working or looking for work in 2007, with 90.9% of men and 75.4% of women in that age group counted among the labor force. As people aged, their labor force participation rates dropped. Among fifty-five-to sixty-four-year-olds, only 69.6% of men and 58.3% of women were in the labor force. Among those age sixty-five and older, only 20.5% of men and 12.6% of women continued to participate in the labor force.

TABLE 1.4
Employment status of the population, by sex, age, and race, 200607

[Numbers in thousands]
TotalWhiteBlack or African AmericanAsian
Employment status, sex, and age20062007200620072006200720062007
Note: Estimates for the above race groups will not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: 5. Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population by Sex, Age, and Race, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat5.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Total
Civilian noninstitutional population228,815231,867186,264188,25327,00727,48510,15510,633
Civilian labor force151,428153,124123,834124,93517,31417,4966,7277,067
Percent of population66.266.066.566.464.163.766.266.5
Employed144,427146,047118,833119,79215,76516,0516,5226,839
Unemployed7,0017,0785,0025,1431,5491,445205229
Unemployment rate4.64.64.04.18.98.33.03.2
Not in labor force77,38778,74362,42963,3199,6939,9893,4273,566
Men, 16 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population110,605112,17391,02192,07312,13012,3614,8275,052
Civilian labor force81,25582,13667,61368,1588,1288,2523,6213,796
Percent of population73.573.274.374.067.066.875.075.1
Employed77,50278,25464,88365,2897,3547,5003,5113,677
Unemployed3,7533,8822,7302,869774752110119
Unemployment rate4.64.74.04.29.59.13.03.1
Not in labor force29,35030,03623,40823,9154,0024,1101,2061,256
Men, 20 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population102,145103,55584,46685,42010,86411,0574,5154,737
Civilian labor force77,56278,59664,54065,2147,7207,8673,5353,718
Percent of population75.975.976.476.371.171.278.378.5
Employed74,43175,33762,25962,8067,0797,2453,4373,608
Unemployed3,1313,2592,2812,40864062298110
Unemployment rate4.04.13.53.78.37.92.83.0
Not in labor force24,58424,95919,92720,2063,1443,1899801,019
Women, 16 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population118,210119,69495,24296,18014,87715,1245,3285,581
Civilian labor force70,17370,98856,22156,7779,1869,2443,1063,271
Percent of population59.459.359.059.061.761.158.358.6
Employed66,92567,79253,95054,5038,4108,5513,0113,162
Unemployed3,2473,1962,2712,27477569395110
Unemployment rate4.64.54.04.08.47.53.1
Not in labor force48,03748,70739,02139,4035,6915,8792,2222,310
Women, 20 years and over
Civilian noninstitutional population109,992111,33088,94289,79013,57813,7885,0275,265
Civilian labor force66,58567,51653,28653,9258,7238,8283,0383,194
Percent of population60.560.659.960.164.264.060.460.7
Employed63,83464,79951,35951,9968,0688,2402,9533,096
Unemployed2,7512,7181,9271,9306565888599
Unemployment rate4.14.03.63.67.56.72.83.1
Not in labor force43,40743,81435,65635,8644,8544,9601,9892,071
Both sexes, 16 to 19 years
Civilian noninstitutional population16,67816,98212,85613,0432,5652,640613631
Civilian labor force7,2817,0126,0095,795871801154155
Percent of population43.741.346.744.434.030.325.124.5
Employed6,1625,9115,2154,990618566132135
Unemployed1,1191,1017948052532352220
Unemployment rate15.415.713.213.929.129.414.012.7
Not in labor force9,3979,9706,8477,2481,6941,839459476

According to the BLS in Employment and Earnings, unemployment in 2007 was highest among the youngest workers, with those aged sixteen to nineteen experiencing an unemployment rate of 15.7%. The low unemployment rate among those aged fifty-five to sixty-four in 2007 (3.1%), compared with the national average of 4.6% for all workers aged sixteen and over, likely indicates that many of the older workers who had lost their jobs had retired and were no longer in the labor force. Historically, the exit of older workers from the workforce is the result of various reasons, ranging from disability to a genuine desire to retire. For some people, however, leaving the workforce is not a voluntary act. Elimination of middle management positions and other cost-cutting efforts can disproportionately affect older workers, who generally earn more than younger workers with less experience.

TABLE 1.5
Labor force status of persons aged 16 to 24 years old by school enrollment, educational attainment, sex, race, and Hispanic ethnicity, October 2006

[Numbers in thousands]
Civilian labor force
EmployedUnemployed
CharacteristicCivilian noninstitutional populationTotalPercent of populationTotalPercent of populationNumberRateNot in labor force
a Includes a small number of persons enrolled in grades below high school.
b Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
c Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
d Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
Note: Detail for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race. Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals. Data reflect revised population controls for the Current Population Survey introduced in January 2006.
SOURCE: Table 2. Labor Force Status of Persons 16 to 24 Years Old by School Enrollment, Educational Attainment, Sex, Race, and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, October 2006, in College Enrollment and Work Activity of 2006 High School Graduates, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, April 26, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/hsgec.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Total, 16 to 24 years37,04722,30060.220,01654.02,28510.214,746
Enrolled in school20,7979,00143.38,20439.47978.911,796
Enrolled in high schoola10,3153,23531.42,76726.846814.57,080
Men5,2831,58730.01,34325.424415.43,696
Women5,0321,64832.71,42428.322413.63,384
White7,8072,63933.82,31829.732112.25,168
Black or African American1,72441924.332118.69923.51,305
Asian3415516.14814.07b286
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity1,72034219.927616.16619.31,377
Enrolled in college10,4825,76655.05,43751.93295.74,716
Enrolled in 2-year college2,7051,75364.81,63660.51176.7952
Enrolled in 4-year college7,7774,01351.63,80148.92125.33,764
Full-time students8,8694,38249.44,12946.62535.84,487
Part-time students1,6131,38485.81,30881.1755.4230
Men4,8592,58653.22,42449.91636.32,273
Women5,6233,17956.53,01353.61665.22,444
White8,1904,65056.84,40553.82455.33,540
Black or African American1,30363548.756443.27111.2669
Asian67028242.127941.730.9388
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity1,19871759.867856.6395.4481
Not enrolled in school16,25013,29981.811,81172.71,48811.22,950
16 to 19 years3,0742,23872.81,79858.544019.6836
20 to 24 years13,17611,06184.010,01376.01,0489.52,114
Men8,5647,53087.96,69278.183811.11,034
Less than a high school diploma1,9251,52879.41,33569.419312.6397
High school graduates, no collegec4,0083,53188.13,07976.845212.8477
Some college or associate degree1,6741,56793.71,44486.31247.9106
Bachelor's degree and higherd95890394.383487.1697.655
Women7,6865,76975.15,11966.665011.31,916
Less than a high school diploma1,50679652.959039.220625.9709
High school graduates, no collegec3,1472,29572.92,00863.828712.5852
Some college or associate degree1,9031,62685.51,52280.01056.4276
Bachelor's degree and higherd1,1301,05293.099988.4535.079
White12,76910,63683.39,64375.59939.32,133
Black or African American2,4181,86677.21,44759.941822.4552
Asian45534074.631669.4236.9116
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity3,5182,74277.92,50671.22368.6776

STUDENT WORKERS. In 2006 approximately 43.3% of American students ages sixteen to twenty-four were employed while enrolled in school. (See Table 1.5.) College students had a higher labor force participation rate than did high school students (55% and 31.4%, respectively). Non-Hispanic white students were more likely than any other group to work while enrolled in high school, while Hispanic students were more likely to work than any other group while enrolled in college.

EDUCATION

As educational attainment increases, so does the likelihood that a person will be part of the labor force. The unemployment rate also is lower for more educated individuals. Among people age twenty-five and over in 2007, those with a bachelor's degree or higher had the highest labor force participation (77.8%) and the lowest unemployment rate (2%). (See Table 1.6.) On the other hand, those with less than a high school diploma had a labor

TABLE 1.6
Employment status of the population aged 25 years and over, by educational attainment, sex, race and Hispanic ethnicity, 200607

[Numbers in thousands]
Some college or associate degree
Less than a high school diplomaHigh school graduates, no collegeaTotalSome college, no degreeAssociate degreeBachelor's degree and higherb
Employment status, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity200620072006200720062007200620072006200720062007
Total
Civilian noninstitutional population27,54126,63360,74861,37349,01149,83132,06932,85316,94216,97854,57156,620
Civilian labor force12,75812,40838,35438,53935,41035,88722,50422,95812,90612,92842,51244,074
Percent of population46.346.663.162.872.272.070.269.976.276.177.977.8
Employed11,89211,52136,70236,85734,14334,61221,63022,07612,51412,53541,64943,182
Employment-population ratio43.243.360.460.169.769.567.467.273.973.876.376.3
Unemployed8668861,6521,6821,2671,275874882393393863892
Unemployment rate6.87.14.34.43.63.63.93.83.03.02.02.0
Men
Civilian noninstitutional population13,56513,24928,99529,23222,13722,69014,87915,3377,2587,35327,25828,094
Civilian labor force8,1127,97421,26021,38517,52017,85311,50711,8106,0136,04322,55423,289
Percent of population59.860.273.373.279.178.777.377.082.882.282.782.9
Employed7,6147,45020,34520,43416,94517,24311,11011,3825,8355,86222,11422,835
Employment-population ratio56.156.270.269.976.576.074.774.280.479.781.181.3
Unemployed498523914951575610397429177181440454
Unemployment rate6.16.64.34.43.33.43.53.63.03.01.91.9
Women
Civilian noninstitutional population13,97613,38531,75432,14126,87427,14117,18917,5169,6849,62527,31428,527
Civilian labor force4,6464,43417,09417,15417,89018,03410,99611,1486,8936,88619,95820,784
Percent of population33.233.153.853.466.666.464.063.671.271.573.172.9
Employed4,2784,07116,35716,42317,19817,36810,52010,6956,6786,67419,53520,346
Employment-population ratio30.630.451.551.164.064.061.261.169.069.371.571.3
Unemployed368363737731692666477454215212423438
Unemployment rate7.98.24.34.33.93.74.34.13.13.12.12.1
White
Civilian noninstitutional population21,78121,10250,17150,34040,39641,00726,28126,92714,11514,08045,21346,815
Civilian labor force10,33110,10631,35131,35428,97329,28718,25418,57810,71910,70935,04336,215
Percent of population47.447.962.562.371.771.469.569.075.976.177.577.4
Employed9,7209,44630,18830,14028,05628,35517,63217,93610,42410,41934,35735,535
Employment-population ratio44.644.860.259.969.569.167.166.673.974.076.075.9
Unemployed6116601,1621,214917932622642295290686681
Unemployment rate5.96.53.73.93.23.23.43.52.82.72.01.9
Black or African American
Civilian noninstitutional population3,9753,7617,6387,8845,8896,0414,0754,1601,8141,8814,0894,268
Civilian labor force1,5931,4705,1055,1584,4284,5523,0153,0931,4131,4593,3563,540
Percent of population40.139.166.865.475.275.374.074.477.977.682.183.0
Employed1,3891,2934,6974,7834,1544,3002,8162,9121,3381,3893,2633,435
Employment-population ratio34.934.461.560.770.571.269.170.073.773.879.880.5
Unemployed204177408375274252199181757093106
Unemployment rate12.812.08.07.36.25.56.65.95.34.82.83.0
Asian
Civilian noninstitutional population1,0269991,7181,8581,4391,5028478935926094,4964,750
Civilian labor force4554371,0791,1741,0451,0885956474504413,4863,679
Percent of population44.443.862.863.272.672.570.272.576.072.577.577.5
Employed4384251,0461,1361,0121,0485736244394233,4143,592
Employment-population ratio42.742.560.961.170.369.867.769.974.269.575.975.6
Unemployed171333383241222311187288
Unemployment rate3.82.93.13.23.13.73.73.52.44.02.12.4

force participation rate of only 46.6% and an unemployment rate of 7.1%.

The relationship between education and labor force participation held true for men as well as for women. Men age twenty-five and older with a four-year college degree had a labor force participation rate of 82.9%; men with less than a high school diploma had only a 60.2% participation rate. (See Table 1.6.) College-educated women had a labor force participation rate of 72.9%, while women with less than a high school diploma participated in the labor force at a rate of only 33.1%.

TABLE 1.6
Employment status of the population aged 25 years and over, by educational attainment, sex, race and Hispanic ethnicity, 200607

[Numbers in thousands]
Some college or associate degree
Less than a high school diplomaHigh school graduates, no collegeaTotalSome college, no degreeAssociate degreeBachelor's degree and higherb
Employment status, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity200620072006200720062007200620072006200720062007
a Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
b Includes persons with bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: 7. Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population 25 Years and over by Educational Attainment, Sex, Race, and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat7.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Civilian noninstitutional population9,5199,6436,7387,1914,3964,6652,9983,1761,3981,4893,0513,292
Civilian labor force5,9486,0405,0085,3443,5023,6922,3742,4901,1281,2012,4842,707
Percent of population62.562.674.374.379.779.179.278.480.780.781.482.2
Employed5,6205,6774,8015,1103,3773,5422,2822,3821,0951,1602,4282,644
Employment-population ratio59.058.971.371.176.875.976.175.078.377.979.680.3
Unemployed3283632072341251509210833415663
Unemployment rate5.56.04.14.43.64.13.94.42.93.52.22.3

The relationship also held true for all races and ethnic groups. Among all adults age twenty-five and older with a bachelor's degree, African-Americans were the most likely to be counted among the civilian labor force (83%), followed by Hispanics (82.2%), Asians (77.5%), and non-Hispanic whites (77.4%). (See Table 1.6.) African-Americans with a college education were, however, more likely to be unemployed (3%) than Asians (2.4%), Hispanics (2.3%) or non-Hispanic whites (1.9%) with comparable education. This discrepancy hints at the subtle racial discrimination that some African-American and Hispanic people face when trying to find employment.

FAMILIES

According to the BLS in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006 (May 9, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf), 82.4% of the nation's seventy-seven million families had at least one person working in 2006. Asian families were the most likely to include an employed member (89.9%), followed by Hispanic (87.2%), white (82.7%), and African-American families (78.1%). These data include families that may have members who are beyond the generally accepted working age.

Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006 also revealed that about 4.9 million American families (about 6.4% of all families) had at least one person who was unemployed in 2006. Overall, 69.6% of families that included an unemployed person also contained at least one working family member. White and Asian families were considerably less likely to have an unemployed person (5.6% and 5.2%, respectively) than were African-American (11.4%) or Hispanic (8%) families.

The BLS further reported that both spouses were employed in about half (51.8%) of the nation's 57.5 million married-couple families in 2006. (See Table 1.7.) That year, there were about 11.4 million married-couple families (19.8%) in which only the husband was employed outside the house, a slight decrease from the 11.6 million such families in 2005. In nearly 3.8 million married-couple families (6.5%), only the wife worked in 2006, approximately the same percentage as the previous year. More than 9.3 million married-couple families (16.2%) included no working members, although many in this group were retirees.

Family structure affected employment of family members. In 2006 the likelihood of having an employed family member was greatest for families maintained by men with no spouse present (84.9%). (See Table 1.7.) Married-couple families were almost as likely to have an employed member (83.8%). Families maintained by women were least likely to have an employed family member (76%).

Whether any family members were unemployed also varied by type of household, with married-couple households being least likely to contain an unemployed member. Of 5.3 million families maintained by men in 2006 (shown in Table 1.7), 516,000 contained an unemployed member (9.7%). (See Table 1.8.) Of 14.2 million families maintained by women, 1.4 million contained an

TABLE 1.7
Families by presence and relationship of employed members and family type, 200506
[Numbers in thousands]
NumberPercent distribution
Characteristic2005200620052005
*No spouse present.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Data for 2006 reflect revised population controls used in the Current Population Survey.
SOURCE: Table 2. Families by Presence and Relationship of Employed Members and Family Type, 200506 Annual Averages, in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 9, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf (accessed February 6, 2008)
Married-couple families
Total57,16757,509100.0100.0
Member(s) employed, total47,89548,19683.883.8
Husband only11,56211,39920.219.8
Wife only3,7153,7546.56.5
Husband and wife29,33029,79951.351.8
Other employment combinations3,2883,2445.85.6
No member(s) employed9,2729,31316.216.2
Families maintained by women*
Total14,03514,208100.0100.0
Member(s) employed, total10,60910,79675.676.0
Householder only6,0526,10343.143.0
Householder and other member(s)2,8302,95520.220.8
Other member(s), not householder1,7271,73812.312.2
No member(s) employed3,4263,41224.424.0
Families maintained by men*
Total5,2425,300100.0100.0
Member(s) employed, total4,4304,50084.584.9
Householder only2,0932,08939.939.4
Householder and other member(s)1,6391,71531.332.4
Other member(s), not householder69869613.313.1
No member(s) employed81280015.515.1

unemployed member (10.1%). Of 57.5 million marriedcouple families, only three million contained an unemployed member (5.2%).

About eight of ten married-couple families (82.3%) with an unemployed member also contained at least one employed family member in 2006. (See Table 1.8.) In contrast, among families experiencing unemployment in 2006, only 58.3% of families that were headed by a single man also included an employed person. Among households with unemployed members headed by single women, only 47.3% also included an employed person. Families maintained by single people experience greater hardship when unemployment hits.

Families with Children

According to the BLS in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006, both parents were employed in 62% of married-couple families with children under eighteen years old in 2006. In 30.5% of married-couple families, the father, but not the mother, was employed; in only 4.8% of married-couple families, the mother, but not the father, was employed. The proportion of married-couple families in which the father, but not the mother, was employed was much higher among families with pre-school children (under six years of age) than it was in families whose youngest child was six to seventeen years old (38% and 24.3%, respectively).

The BLS also reports in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006 that in 2006 higher proportions of single mothers worked than married mothers, while slightly lower proportions of single fathers worked than married fathers. In single-mother families, 72% of mothers worked, compared with 66.8% of mothers in married-couple families. In single-father families, 83.5% of fathers worked, compared with 92.5% of married fathers. In single-mother families, higher proportions of mothers without children under age six worked than did mothers of children with preschool-age children. The age of children had little effect, however, on whether or not single fathers worked.

The unemployment rate of mothers varied by age of children and marital status. In 2006 the unemployment rate of married mothers with children under eighteen years old was 3.1%, compared with an 8.5% rate for unmarried mothers. (Table 1.9.) The unemployment rate for mothers with preschool children (6%) was higher than the rate for mothers whose youngest child was of school age (4.1%).

TABLE 1.8
Unemployment in families by presence and relationship of employed members and family type, 200506

[Numbers in thousands]
NumberPercent distribution
Characteristic2005200620052006
*No spouse present.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Data for 2006 reflect revised population controls used in the Current Population Survey.
SOURCE: Table 3. Unemployment in Families by Presence and Relationship of Employed Members and Family Type, 200506 Annual Averages, in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 9, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf (accessed February 6, 2008)
Married-couple families
With unemployed member(s), total3,2432,968100.0100.0
No member employed58052617.917.7
Some member(s) employed2,6642,44282.182.3
Husband unemployed1,1901,06136.735.7
Wife employed75367923.222.9
Wife unemployed1,00489831.030.3
Husband employed87377226.926.0
Other family member unemployed1,0491,01032.434.0
Families maintained by women*
With unemployed member(s), total1,5391,429100.0100.0
No member employed79775351.852.7
Some member(s) employed74367548.247.3
Householder unemployed74668848.548.2
Other member(s) employed16113210.59.3
Other member(s) unemployed79374051.551.8
Families maintained by men*
With unemployed member(s), total536516100.0100.0
No member employed22521542.141.7
Some member(s) employed31030157.958.3
Householder unemployed30128456.155.0
Other member(s) employed12211822.822.8
Other member(s) unemployed23523243.945.0

In 2006 more than half (56.1%) of all mothers with a child under one year old were in the labor force. (See Table 1.10.) This proportion rose among mothers with children two years of age (64.5%). Most mothers of children under three years old worked in 2006, but unmarried, divorced, separated, and widowed mothers with young children were more likely to be in the labor force (65.7%) than were married mothers with children the same age (58.2%). This most likely occurs because single women had fewer financial resources that would allow them to remain out of the labor force than did married women.

Unmarried mothers of children under three years old also experienced higher rates of unemployment than their married counterparts. The unemployment rate for single mothers of children under three years old in 2006 was 13.6%, compared with 3.5% among mothers who were married and had children under age three. (See Table 1.10.) The unemployment rate among single mothers of children under one year old was 16.7%, compared with just 3.9% for married mothers with children the same age.

EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY

One way to look at employment figures is by industry. All employees who work in each industry sector are counted. Industry sectors include goods-producing industriessuch as natural resources and mining, construction, and manufacturingand service-providing industriessuch as trade, transportation, and utilities (including wholesale and retail trade), information services, financial services, professional and business services, education and health services, leisure and hospitality, other services, and government. People with the same occupation may work in different industries. For example, an accountant may work in a manufacturing plant, be employed in a tax-preparation office, hold a government job, or teach in a university, and therefore be part of the manufacturing industry, the financial services industry, the government, or the education and health services industry. Wages and working conditions are often tied to the industry in which one works.

According to figures released by the BLS in The Employment Situation: February 2008 (March 7, 2008, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf), there were an estimated 138 million Americans working in private, nonfarm industries, including nearly 21.8 million workers in the goods-producing sector, in February 2008. Approximately 13.7 million of those in the goods-producing industry worked in manufacturing. Nearly two-thirds of manufacturing workers (8.7 million; 63.4%) produced durable

TABLE 1.9
Employment status of the population, by sex, marital status, and presence and age of own children under 18 years old, 2006
[Numbers in thousands]
2006
CharacteristicTotalMenWomen
With own children under 18 years
Civilian noninstitutional population64,68028,18836,492
Civilian labor force52,39126,53025,861
Participation rate81.094.170.9
Employed50,38825,77424,614
Employment-population ratio77.991.467.4
Full-time workersa43,48524,88418,601
Part-time workersb6,9028906,013
Unemployed2,0047561,247
Unemployment rate3.82.94.8
Married, spouse present
Civilian noninstitutional population51,67025,64826,022
Civilian labor force42,13624,29517,842
Participation rate81.594.768.6
Employed40,96023,68017,280
Employment-population ratio79.392.366.4
Full-time workersa35,50022,92512,575
Part-time workersb5,4607554,705
Unemployed1,176614562
Unemployment rate2.82.53.1
Other marital statusc
Civilian noninstitutional population13,0102,54110,470
Civilian labor force10,2552,2368,019
Participation rate78.888.076.6
Employed9,4272,0947,333
Employment-population ratio72.582.470.0
Full-time workersa7,9851,9606,026
Part-time workersb1,4421341,308
Unemployed827142686
Unemployment rate8.16.38.5
With own children 6 to 17 years,
none younger
Civilian noninstitutional population35,91215,59420,318
Civilian labor force30,10014,51515,585
Participation rate83.893.176.7
Employed29,07614,12414,952
Employment-population ratio81.090.673.6
Full-time workersa25,27713,64811,629
Part-time workersb3,7994763,323
Unemployed1,024392632
Unemployment rate3.42.74.1
With own children under 6 years
Civilian noninstitutional population28,76812,59416,174
Civilian labor force22,29112,01510,276
Participation rate77.595.463.5
Employed21,31111,6509,661
Employment-population ratio74.192.559.7
Full-time workersa18,20811,2366,972
Part-time workersb3,1034142,689
Unemployed980365615
Unemployment rate4.43.06.0

goods; the rest (8.7 million, or 36.6%) produced nondurable goods.

BLS data also shows that in February 2008 approximately 116.1 million people were employed in service-providing industries, with about 93.7 million of them employed in the private sector. These figures included 15.4 million people who worked in retail trade; 4.5 million people who worked in transportation and warehousing; 556,500 people who worked in utilities; 3 million people who worked in information services; 8.2 million people who worked in

TABLE 1.9
Employment status of the population, by sex, marital status, and presence and age of own children under 18 years old, 2006
[Numbers in thousands]
2006
CharacteristicTotalMenWomen
a Usually work 35 hours or more a week at all jobs.
b Usually work less than 35 hours a week at all jobs.
c Includes never-married, divorced, separated, and widowed persons.
Note: Own children include sons, daughters, step-children, and adopted children. Not included are nieces, nephews, grandchildren, and other related and unrelated children. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Data for 2006 reflect revised population controls used in the Current Population Survey.
SOURCE: Adapted from Table 5. Employment Status of the Population by Sex, Marital Status, and Presence and Age of Own Children under 18, 200506 Annual Averages, in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 9, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf (accessed February 6, 2008)
With no own children under 18 years
Civilian noninstitutional population162,43880,71981,718
Civilian labor force97,42753,11544,312
Participation rate60.065.854.2
Employed92,46050,14842,312
Employment-population ratio56.962.151.8
Full-time workersa74,63842,85931,780
Part-time workersb17,8217,28910,532
Uneamployed4,9672,9672,000
Unemployment rate5.15.64.5

the financial sector; 18.1 million people who worked in professional and business services; 18.7 million people in education and health services; 13.7 million people in leisure and hospitality; and 5.5 million people in other services. In addition, 22.4 million people worked for the federal, state, or local government in the public sector.

EMPLOYMENT BY OCCUPATION

On the other hand, workers may be counted by occupational group. For example, whether nurses work in schools, large manufacturing plants, or in doctors' offices, they need the same training and perform similar work, even though they work in different industries. The BLS breaks down occupations into several broad categories. Management, professional, and related occupations include such jobs as teachers, physicians, managers, and lawyers. Service occupations include jobs such as nurse's aides, police and firefighters, cafeteria workers, and hairdressers. Sales and office occupations include jobs such as retail clerks and secretaries. Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations include jobs such as fishermen, foresters, construction workers, and appliance repair people. Production, transportation, and material moving occupations include jobs such as production workers and truck drivers.

A greater proportion of workers were employed in managerial or professional jobs (35.5%) than in service

TABLE 1.10
Employment status of mothers with own children under 3 years old, by age of youngest child and marital status, 2006

[Numbers in thousands]
Civilian labor force
EmployedUnemployed
2006Civilian noninstitutional populationTotalPercent of populationTotalPercent of populationFull-time workersaPart-time workersbNumberPercent of labor force
a Usually work 35 hours or more a week at all jobs.
b Usually work less than 35 hours a week at all jobs.
c Includes never-married, divorced, separated, and widowed persons.
Note: Own children include sons, daughters, step-children, and adopted children. Not included are nieces, nephews, grandchildren, and other related and unrelated children. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Data for 2006 reflect revised population controls used in the Current Population Survey.
SOURCE: Adapted from Table 6. Employment Status of Mothers with Own Children under 3 Years Old by Single Year of Age of Youngest Child and Marital Status, 200506 Annual Averages, in Employment Characteristics of Families in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 9, 2007, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/famee.pdf (accessed February 6, 2008)
Total mothers
With own children under 3 years old9,4315,67560.25,31556.43,7511,5643606.3
2 years2,8641,84764.51,74661.01,2804661015.5
1 year3,3182,00660.51,88356.71,3055771236.1
Under 1 year3,2481,82256.11,68651.91,1665201367.4
Married, spouse present
With own children under 3 years old6,9984,07658.23,93356.22,7561,1771433.5
2 years2,1141,30561.71,26559.8910354403.1
1 year2,4941,45658.41,40456.3962442523.6
Under 1 year2,3901,31555.01,26452.9883381513.9
Other marital statusc
With own children under 3 years old2,4331,60065.71,38256.899638621713.6
2 years75054372.348164.23691126111.3
1 year82455066.747958.13441357113.0
Under 1 year85950759.042249.22831398516.7

occupations (16.5%), sales and office occupations (24.8%), natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations (10.8%), or production, transportation, and material moving occupations (12.4%). (See Table 1.11.) According to BLS figures, the percent of American workers employed in management and professional occupations as well as service occupations is steadily increasing, while the percent of American workers employed in production occupations is decreasing.

Women and men were highly concentrated in certain occupations. Women were more likely to work in professional and related occupations, service occupations, and office and administrative support occupations than were men. In 2007, 25.1% of women and only 16.9% of men worked in professional and business occupations, 20.4% of women and 13.2% of men worked in service occupations, and 21.6% of women and only 6.2% of men worked in office and administrative support occupations. (See Table 1.11.) On the other hand, men were much more likely than women to work in natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations (19.3% of men and 1% of women) and in production, transportation, and material moving occupations (17.9% of men and 6.2% of women).

According to the BLS, African-Americans and Hispanics were less likely than whites and Asians to work in the fairly high-paid managerial and professional specialties; nearly half of Asians (48.1%) and over a third of whites (36.1%) worked in these occupations, compared with only 27.1% of African-Americans and 17.8% of Hispanics. (See Table 1.11.) On the other hand, African-Americans and Hispanics were disproportionately concentrated in the relatively low-paid service occupations. Only 15.5% of whites and 16% of Asians worked in these occupations, compared with 23.3% of African-Americans and 24.1% of Hispanics. In addition, a disproportionate number of Hispanic workers (19.4%) worked in natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations compared with whites (11.6%), African-Americans (7%), and Asians (4.4%).

The BLS also reported in Employment and Earnings that in 2007 the vast majority of the American workforce were wage or salary earners in nonagricultural industries (134.3 million). Another 9.6 million Americans were self-employed, and 112,000 Americans were unpaid family workers. Only 2.1 million people were employed in agriculture, approximately 58% of them as wage and salary workers and 40.8% of them as self-employed workers. Most people worked full time; 119.7 million people, or 82.9%, did so.

CONTINGENT WORKERS AND ALTERNATIVE WORK ARRANGEMENTS

According to the BLS, even though most formal studies have found no change in workers' overall job tenure, the effects of media reports and personal experience of corporate

TABLE 1.11
Employed persons by occupation, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and sex, 200607

[Percent distribution]
TotalMenWomen
Occupation, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity200620072006200720062007
Total
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)144,427146,04777,50278,25466,92567,792
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Management, professional, and related occupations34.935.532.232.738.138.6
Management, business, and financial operations occupations14.714.815.915.813.313.6
Professional and related occupations20.220.716.216.924.825.1
Service occupations16.516.513.113.220.420.4
Sales and office occupations25.024.817.116.934.233.8
Sales and related occupations11.511.410.910.812.212.2
Office and administrative support occupations13.513.46.26.222.021.6
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations11.010.819.519.31.11.0
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations.7.71.01.0.3.3
Construction and extraction occupations6.66.511.911.9.4.4
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations3.73.66.66.4.4.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations12.612.418.117.96.26.2
Production occupations6.56.48.48.44.34.2
Transportation and material moving occupations6.16.09.79.52.02.0
White
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)118,833119,79264,88365,28953,95054,503
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Management, professional, and related occupations35.536.132.633.238.939.5
Management, business, and financial operations occupations15.415.516.716.713.813.9
Professional and related occupations20.120.615.916.525.225.6
Service occupations15.415.512.212.419.319.3
Sales and office occupations25.124.817.016.734.834.4
Sales and related occupations11.811.611.311.012.412.3
Office and administrative support occupations13.313.25.75.722.422.1
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations11.811.620.720.41.11.0
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations.7.71.11.1.3.3
Construction and extraction occupations7.17.112.712.7.5.4
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations3.93.86.96.7.4.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations12.212.017.617.35.85.7
Production occupations6.46.38.38.44.03.9
Transportation and material moving occupations5.95.79.29.01.81.9
Black or African American
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)15,76516,0517,3547,5008,4108,551
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Management, professional, and related occupations27.027.122.322.331.131.2
Management, business, and financial operations occupations9.810.19.79.210.011.0
Professional and related occupations17.216.912.613.121.120.3
Service occupations24.123.320.419.227.326.8
Sales and office occupations25.726.218.118.732.332.7
Sales and related occupations9.510.38.08.810.911.7
Office and administrative support occupations16.215.810.210.021.421.0
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations6.87.013.514.01.0.8
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations.3.3.4.4.2.2
Construction and extraction occupations4.04.08.18.1.3.3
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations2.62.75.05.5.5.3
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations16.416.525.725.78.38.5
Production occupations7.37.49.79.65.25.4
Transportation and material moving occupations9.19.216.016.13.13.1

downsizing, production streamlining, and the increasing use of temporary workers can cause workers to question employers' commitment to long-term, stable employment relationships. There is also a growing unease that employers, in their attempts to reduce costs, have increased their use of employment intermediaries, such as temporary help services and contract companies, and are relying more on alternative staffing arrangements, such as on-call workers and independent contractors (also called freelancers).

Workers may take employment in a nonstandard arrangement, such as working for a temporary agency, for a number of reasons, including inability to find a permanent job, a desire to work fewer hours when they have a young child at home, or a desire to experience varied jobs and job sectors. In addition, nonstandard work arrangements such as consulting or contracting can provide a more flexible workday and more lucrative remuneration.

Contingent Worker Characteristics

The BLS defines contingent work as any job situation in which an individual does not have an explicit or implicit contract for long-term employment. This includes

TABLE 1.11
Employed persons by occupation, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and sex, 200607
[Percent distribution]
TotalMenWomen
Occupation, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity200620072006200720062007
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: 10. Employed Persons by occupation, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Sex, in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 2008, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat10.pdf (accessed February 2, 2008)
Asian
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)6,5226,8393,5113,6773,0113,162
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Management, professional, and related occupations47.348.148.749.345.746.8
Management, business, and financial operations occupations15.815.816.915.814.515.7
Professional and related occupations31.632.431.833.531.231.1
Service occupations15.816.013.413.518.518.9
Sales and office occupations22.421.918.218.427.326.0
Sales and related occupations11.811.411.911.511.611.4
Office and administrative support occupations10.710.56.36.915.714.7
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations4.44.47.67.4.7.9
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations.2.2.3.2.2.3
Construction and extraction occupations1.71.73.03.1.3.1
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations2.42.44.34.1.3.5
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations10.19.612.111.47.77.4
Production occupations7.06.57.16.76.76.3
Transportation and material moving occupations3.13.04.94.71.01.0
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)19,61320,38211,88712,3107,7258,072
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Management, professional, and related occupations17.017.813.714.322.123.1
Management, business, and financial operations occupations7.57.77.17.28.38.6
Professional and related occupations9.510.06.67.113.914.5
Service occupations23.724.119.219.730.630.7
Sales and office occupations21.221.113.713.232.733.1
Sales and related occupations9.49.37.37.212.612.4
Office and administrative support occupations11.811.86.46.020.220.7
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations19.819.431.331.02.21.8
Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations1.91.92.62.51.01.0
Construction and extraction occupations14.214.022.922.8.9.6
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations3.73.65.95.7.3.2
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations18.317.622.121.712.311.3
Production occupations9.99.410.410.49.08.0
Transportation and material moving occupations8.48.211.711.33.33.3

independent contractors, on-call workers, and those working for temporary help services. In the report Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2005 (July 27, 2005, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/conemp.pdf), the BLS estimated that contingent workers accounted for between 1.8% and 4.1% of total employment in the United States. In February 2005, 22.6%27.2% of all contingent workers in the United States were employed in professional and related occupations. Other high rates of contingency were in the education and health services industries (21.8%27.1%), sales and office occupations (20.6%24.3%), office and administrative support occupations (14.8%19.4%), and service occupations (15.7%17.6).

The BLS also reported in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements that laborers who were between the ages of twenty and thirty-four years were more than twice as likely to be contingent workers as workers who were younger or older. The trend was evident for both male and female contingent workers. Contingent workers were also more likely to be employed full-time than part-time.

Alternative Work Arrangements

Employees in alternative work arrangements are individuals whose place, time, and quantity of work are potentially unpredictable or individuals whose employment is arranged through an employment intermediary. Examples include independent contractors, on-call workers, workers paid by temporary help firms, and workers whose services are provided through contract firms.

Some of the alternative arrangements have been in existence for decades; there is, however, a lack of data analyzing the number of workers in these arrangements. The ranks of independent contractors include construction workers and farmhands, whose working situations did not change much in the twentieth century. Similarly, on-call workers such as substitute teachers, registered nurses, and performance artists did not see much change in the manner of obtaining work. Temporary help agencies, though, can only trace their widespread existence in the United States to shortly after World War II, and there is evidence that providing employees to fulfill the administrative or business needs of other companies is a spreading phenomenon.

According to the BLS in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, 14.8 million people, or 10.7% of the total workforce of 139 million, could be categorized in four alternative arrangement categories. Independent contractors made up 10.3 million people (7.4% of the total workforce) in February 2005, followed by on-call workers (2.5 million, or 1.8%), temporary help agency workers (1.2 million, or 0.9%), and contract company employees (813,000, or 0.6%).

Workers with alternative arrangements were less likely than workers with traditional arrangements to be enrolled in school in February 2005, the BLS noted in the same report. About one-quarter (26.6%) of independent contractors aged sixteen to twenty-four with alternative work arrangements, 41.4% of on-call workers with alternative work arrangements in that age group, 4.7% of temporary agency workers, and 13% of contract company workers were enrolled in school in February 2005, compared with 44.1% of sixteen- to twenty-four-year-old workers with traditional arrangements.

THE WORKING POOR

In 2005 approximately 7.7 million people who were in the labor force for twenty-seven weeks or more, or 5.4% of the total labor force, lived below the official poverty level, according to data presented by the BLS in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005 (September 2007, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2005.pdf). These people are called the working poor because, despite working for at least twenty-seven weeks, their incomes still fell below the official poverty threshold. The poverty rate among families that had at least one member in the labor force for more than half the year was higher, at 6.4%.

The BLS also notes in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005 that the poverty rate among those working or looking for work for at least twenty-seven weeks during 2005 was 5.4%. Among individuals who spent fifty to fifty-two weeks in the labor force in that year, the poverty rate was slightly lower, at 4.9%. Among people in the labor force for the full year who usually worked full-time, the poverty rate was 3.5%; among those who usually worked part-time, the poverty rate was 11.4%.

Gender, Race, and Age

Of the 142.8 million people aged sixteen and over who were in the labor force at least twenty-seven weeks during 2005, more women (4 million) than men (3.8 million) were poor. (See Table 1.12.) Because fewer women than men participated in the labor force in 2005 (65.5 million women, compared with 77.3 million men), there was an even greater discrepancy between the percentage of working women living in poverty (6.1%) and the percentage of working men whose earnings fell below the poverty threshold (4.8%).

Seven out of ten (70.7%) of the 7.5 million working poor in 2005 were white workers, yet African-American and Hispanic workers continued to experience poverty rates that were more than twice the rates of whites. (See Table 1.12.) More than one in ten working Hispanics (10.5%) as well as more than one in ten working African-Americans (10.5%) were living in poverty. Only 4.7% of whites and 4.7% of Asians were making wages below the poverty level. The poverty rate among working African-American women was much higher than among working African-American men (13% and 7.7%, respectively), just as the poverty rate was higher among working white women than it was among working white men (5% and 4.4%, respectively). Hispanic men and women had about equal poverty rates, while working Asian women actually had a lower poverty rate than working Asian men (4.4% and 5%, respectively).

Education and Poverty Rate

Among all the people in the labor force at least twenty-seven weeks during 2005, those with less than a high school diploma had a much higher poverty rate (14.1%) than did high school graduates (6.6%). (See Table 1.13.) Workers who had attained at least an associate's degree (4.7%) or who had graduated from college (1.7%) reported the lowest poverty rates. Poverty rates for African-American and Hispanic workers were 1.5 to two times higher than for white workers at many corresponding education levels. Poverty rates for Asian workers were also greater than for white workers, although the differences were less than for African-American or Hispanic workers. For example, the poverty rate of white high school graduates was 5.5% in 2005; in comparison, the poverty rates of African-American graduates (12.7%), Hispanic graduates (9.4%), and Asian graduates (7.3%) were all significantly higher.

Poverty disproportionately affected working women at all education levels. Men without a high school diploma had a poverty rate of 12.6%, while women had a poverty rate of 16.8%. (See Table 1.13.) Male high school graduates had a poverty rate of 5.6%, while female graduates had a rate of 8%. Men with an associate's degree had a poverty rate of 3.7%, while women with comparable education had a rate of 5.6%. Only among college graduates did the rate even out; it was 1.6% among men with bachelor's degrees and 1.7% among women. Poverty rates among working African-American women were particularly high, affecting

TABLE 1.12
Poverty status of people in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic ethnicity, 2005
[Numbers in thousands]
Below poverty levelRatea
Age and sexTotalWhiteBlack or African AmericanAsianHispanic or Latino ethnicityTotalWhiteBlack or African AmericanAsianHispanic or Latino ethnicityTotalWhiteBlack or African AmericanAsianHispanic or Latino ethnicity
a Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
b Data not shown where base is less than 80,000
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, people whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race.
SOURCE: Table 2. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More: Poverty Status by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, 2005, in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2007, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2005.pdf (accessed February 8, 2008)
Total, 16 years and older142,824117,07816,1226,29018,9057,7445,4771,6942981,9835.44.710.54.710.5
16 to 19 years4,1923,48351178602438313100810510.59.019.59.717.5
20 to 24 years13,37010,7671,7044472,3471,6101,1443535032812.010.620.811.114.0
25 to 34 years31,02224,5813,9141,6215,8732,1381,472516766816.96.013.24.711.6
35 to 44 years34,77927,9784,2231,7824,9741,7521,268352705575.04.58.33.911.2
45 to 54 years34,42228,6883,7011,3713,3111,166804246731963.42.86.65.45.9
55 to 64 years19,64916,8511,7017871,44553239910513932.72.46.21.76.4
65 years and older5,3904,73036820535310877228222.01.66.04.16.3
Men, 16 years and older77,32964,6037,4823,39611,5573,7502,8465741701,2034.84.47.75.010.4
16 to 19 years2,0821,73924643369182129347568.87.413.8b15.1
20 to 24 years7,2115,8978322451,4537275361243219410.19.114.912.813.4
25 to 34 years17,34214,0761,8268873,8071,043804141464576.05.77.75.212.0
35 to 44 years19,10415,7381,9509763,021891705116403234.74.56.04.110.7
45 to 54 years18,15915,3621,7087291,879603430115371113.32.86.75.05.9
55 to 64 years10,4009,083753412817244195357512.32.14.61.66.2
65 years and older3,0302,7081661042125947102122.01.75.92.25.6
Women, 16 years and older65,49552,4758,6402,8947,3483,9942,6311,1191287806.15.013.04.410.6
16 to 19 years2,1101,744265352342561846615012.110.624.9b21.3
20 to 24 years6,1594,8708722028948826082301813414.312.526.49.015.0
25 to 34 years13,68010,5042,0887332,0661,095668374302238.06.417.94.110.8
35 to 44 years15,67412,2402,2728061,953861562236302345.54.610.43.712.0
45 to 54 years16,26313,3261,9936411,43256337513137863.52.86.65.76.0
55 to 64 years9,2497,768948375628288204706423.12.67.41.76.7
65 years and older2,3602,0222021011414930126102.11.56.1b7.4
TABLE 1.13
Poverty status of people in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, by educational attainment, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and sex, 2005

[Numbers in thousands]
Below poverty levelRatea
Educational attainment, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicityTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen
a Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
b Includes people with a high school diploma or equivalent.
c Includes people with a high school diploma or equivalent.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, people whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race.
SOURCE: Adapted from Table 3. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More: Poverty Status by Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Sex, 2005, in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2007, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2005.pdf (accessed February 8, 2008)
Total, 16 years and older142,82477,32965,4957,7443,7503,9945.44.86.1
Less than a high school diploma15,96110,1365,8252,2551,27797914.112.616.8
High school graduates, no collegeb42,94724,15418,7932,8441,3431,5006.65.68.0
Some college or associate degree41,51420,57020,9441,9377661,1704.73.75.6
Bachelor's degree and higherc42,40222,46919,9337083643451.71.61.7
White, 16 years and older117,07864,60352,4755,4772,8462,6314.74.45.0
Less than a high school diploma12,9398,4954,4441,6831,02366013.012.014.8
High school graduates, no collegeb34,88519,93814,9471,9179789395.54.96.3
Some college or associate degree34,11117,22116,8901,3495747754.03.34.6
Bachelor's degree and higher35,14318,94916,1945282722571.51.41.6
Black or African American, 16 years and older16,1227,4828,6401,6945741,11910.57.713.0
Less than a high school diploma1,9561,03592243416327122.215.829.4
High school graduates, no collegeb5,7782,8982,88173624649012.78.517.0
Some college or associate degree5,0502,1512,8994351233128.65.710.8
Bachelor's degree and higherc3,3371,3981,9388942472.73.02.4
Asian, 16 years and older6,2903,3962,8942981701284.75.04.4
Less than a high school diploma56830326557362110.011.97.8
High school graduates, no collegeb1,2436905529059317.38.65.6
Some college or associate degree1,2086185907333406.15.46.7
Bachelor's degree and higherc3,2711,7851,4877841362.42.32.5
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and older18,90511,5577,3481,9831,20378010.510.410.6
Less than a high school diploma6,6514,6042,0471,09972037916.515.618.5
High school graduates, no collegeb5,7473,5242,2235423192239.49.110.0
Some college or associate degree4,1412,2071,9352801291516.85.97.8
Bachelor's degree and higherc2,3651,2221,1436235272.62.92.4

29.4% of those without a high school diploma, 17% of women with a high school diploma, 10.8% of those with an associate's degree, and 2.4% of those with a bachelor's degree.

Occupations

During 2005, people working in managerial and professional specialty occupations had the lowest probability of being poor; only 1.8% of working managers and professionals had incomes below the poverty line. (See Table 1.14.) In contrast, the average poverty rate for workers in service occupations was quite high, at 10.8%. The BLS in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005 reports that those working in the farming/fishing/forestry sector also had a high poverty rate, at 13.7%. In addition, construction workers had a higher probability than average (8.1%) of making wages below the poverty line, perhaps in part because of the seasonal nature of much construction work. In general, African-Americans and those of Hispanic/Latino ethnicity were more likely than whites to earn annual wages below the poverty level, regardless of occupation.

In all occupational groups except office and administrative support, women were more likely than men were to be poor. In 2003 men experienced a higher poverty rate in only one occupational group, office and administrative support, with a rate of 4% compared with 3.5% for women, according to A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005. In all other occupations, men fared better than women did. The poverty rate for women employed in sales and related occupations (9.2%) was more than two times that of their male counterparts (3.7%).

Poverty Trends by Family Structure

In 2005, of the 4.1 million working families who lived below the poverty level, 1.9 million of them were headed by single women, illustrating the disproportionate poverty suffered by families headed by single mothers. (See Table 1.15.) The poverty rate for families was 6.4%. The poverty rate for families with just one member in the labor force (12.7%) was more than seven times more than that of families with two or more members in the work-

TABLE 1.14
Poverty status of people in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, by occupation of longest job held, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and sex, 2005

[Numbers in thousands]
Below poverty levelRatea
Occupation, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicityTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomen
a Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more who worked during the year.
b Includes a small number of people whose last job was in the Armed Forces.
c Data not shown where base is less than 80,000.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, people whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race. Dash represents or rounds to zero.
SOURCE: Adapted from Table 4. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More Who Worked during the Year: Poverty Status by Occupation of Longest Job Held, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Sex, 2005, in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2007, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2005.pdf (accessed February 8, 2008)
Total, 16 years and olderb142,82477,32965,4957,7443,7503,9945.44.86.1
Management, professional, and related occupations48,35624,16724,1898683964721.81.62.0
Service occupations22,1659,75112,4152,3928541,53810.88.812.4
Sales and office occupations34,46712,76821,6991,6724851,1864.83.85.5
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations15,46214,8616011,044985596.86.69.8
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations17,86313,8364,0271,1397663746.45.59.3
White, 16 years and olderb117,07864,60352,4755,4772,8462,6314.74.45.0
Management, professional, and related occupations40,54020,61019,9306372903471.61.41.7
Service occupations16,7387,4339,3051,5855959899.58.010.6
Sales and office occupations28,51810,76117,7571,1483717784.03.44.4
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations13,65513,156499885830556.56.311.0
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations14,14711,1552,9938215902325.85.37.7
Black or African American, 16 years and olderb16,1227,4828,6401,6945741,11910.57.713.0
Management, professional, and related occupations4,0901,5522,53812940893.22.63.5
Service occupations3,7531,5262,22764617047617.211.121.4
Sales and office occupations3,8991,1942,7054058132410.46.812.0
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations1,0881,02463979618.99.4(c)
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations2,6001,8947062411201209.26.417.0
Asian, 16 years and olderb6,2903,3962,8942981701284.75.04.4
Management, professional, and related occupations2,8251,5651,2596340242.22.51.9
Service occupations1,0494925579557389.011.66.8
Sales and office occupations1,2965467516422435.03.95.7
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations2752522314145.25.6
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations644438206352695.45.94.3
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and olderb18,90511,5577,3481,9831,20378010.510.410.6
Management, professional, and related occupations3,0781,4771,6019254383.03.62.4
Service occupations4,3712,2822,08964531333214.713.715.9
Sales and office occupations3,8351,5772,258290951957.66.08.6
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations3,6983,5431564854612413.113.015.4
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations3,3492,46388635524111410.69.812.8

force (1.6%). Families maintained by women with one member in the labor force (with a poverty rate of 22.4%) were significantly more likely to be poor than similar families maintained by men (11.7%). Married-couple families with two or more members in the labor force had the lowest poverty rate (1.2%).

EMPLOYEE TENURE

Information on tenure (how long a person has worked for his or her current employer) is often used to gauge employment security. A trend of increasing tenure in the economy can be interpreted as a sign of improving job security, with the opposite being an indicator of deteriorating security.

TABLE 1.15
Poverty status of families by presence of related children, work experience of family members in the labor force for 27 weeks or more, and type of family, 2005

[Numbers in thousands]
CharacteristicTotal familiesAt or above poverty levelBelow poverty levelRate*
*Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
Note: Data relate to primary families with at least one member in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
SOURCE: Table 5. Primary Families: Poverty Status, Presence of Related Children, and Work Experience of Family Members in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More, 2005, in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2005, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 2007, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2005.pdf (accessed February 8, 2008)
Total primary families64,36060,2664,0946.4
With related children under 18 years36,07532,6583,4179.5
Without children28,28527,6086762.4
With one member in the labor force27,49824,0033,49412.7
With two or more members in the labor force36,86236,2636001.6
With two members31,02530,4815441.8
With three or more members5,8375,782551.0
Married-couple families48,89947,1111,7873.7
With related children under 18 years26,28724,8461,4415.5
Without children22,61222,2653471.5
With one member in the labor force16,77215,3771,3948.3
Husband12,45111,3721,0798.7
Wife3,6653,4052607.1
Relative655600558.4
With two or more members in the labor force32,12731,7343931.2
With two members27,27026,9113591.3
With three or more members4,8574,82334.7
Families maintained by women10,9669,0411,92517.6
With related children under 18 years7,4615,7721,68922.6
Without children3,5053,2692366.7
With one member in the labor force7,9246,1511,77322.4
Householder6,5975,0601,53723.3
Relative1,3261,09023617.8
With two or more members in the labor force3,0422,8901525.0
Families maintained by men4,4964,1143828.5
With related children under 18 years2,3282,04028812.4
Without children2,1682,074944.3
With one member in the labor force2,8022,47532711.7
Householder2,2872,01327412.0
Relative5154625310.3
With two or more members in the labor force1,6931,639553.2

However, job security trends are not necessarily that simple. During recessions or other periods of declining job security, the proportion of median-tenure and long-tenure workers could rise because workers with less seniority are more likely to lose their jobs than are workers with longer tenure. During periods of economic growth, the proportion of median-tenure and long-tenure workers could fall, because more job opportunities are available for new job entrants, and experienced workers have more opportunities to change employers and take better jobs. However, tenure can also rise under improving economic conditions, as fewer layoffs occur and good job matches develop between workers and employers.

As shown in Table 1.16, median tenure (the point at which half the workers had more tenure and half had less) in January 2006 was four years, the same as in January 2004 but higher than figures obtained in 2002, 2000, 1998, or 1996. Between 1996 and 2006 the median tenure with current employer for male workers held fairly steady, at four years in 1996 and 4.1 years in 2006. Job tenure for male workers age twenty-five and over, though, actually declined during the decade, from 5.3 years in 1996 to 5 years in 2006. Overall median tenure with current employer among women rose somewhat between 1996 and 2006, from 3.5 in 1996 to 3.9 in 2006. This can be explained by fewer women taking time out of the labor force to care for small children. However, the median employee tenure was still half a year longer among men than among women.

In addition to tracking trends in median tenure, the BLS, in Employee Tenure in 2006 (September 8, 2006, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/tenure.pdf), charts trends in the proportion of workers with relatively long tenures of ten years or more. Among workers age twenty-five and over, the percent of workers with these long tenures dropped slightly from 30.5% in February 1996 to 30% in 2006. The percent of women with tenures of ten years or more with current employer, however, actually rose during that decade, from 27.6% in 1996 to 28.8% in 2006. The proportion of men who had worked for their current employer ten years or longer fell from 33.1% in 1996 to 31.1% in 2006.

TABLE 1.16
Median years of tenure with current employer for employed wage and salary workers, by age and sex, selected years, 19962006
Age and sexFebruary 1996February 1998February 2000January 2002January 2004January 2006
Note: Data for 1996 and 1998 are based on population controls from the 1990 census. Data beginning in 2000 reflect the introduction of census 2000 population controls and are not strictly comparable with data for prior years. In addition, data for January 2004 reflect the introduction of revisions to population controls in January 2003 and 2004, and data for January 2006 reflect the introduction of revisions to population controls in January 2005 and 2006.
SOURCE: Table 1. Median Years of Tenure with Current Employer for Employed Wage and Salary Workers by Age and Sex, Selected Years, 19962006, in Employee Tenure in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 8, 2006, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/tenure.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
Total
16 years and over3.83.63.53.74.04.0
16 to 17 years.7.6.6.7.7.6
18 to 19 years.7.7.7.8.8.7
20 to 24 years1.21.11.11.21.31.3
25 years and over5.04.74.74.74.94.9
25 to 34 years2.82.72.62.72.92.9
35 to 44 years5.35.04.84.64.94.9
45 to 54 years8.38.18.27.67.77.3
55 to 64 years10.210.110.09.99.69.3
65 years and over8.47.89.48.69.08.8
Men
16 years and over4.03.83.83.94.14.1
16 to 17 years.6.6.6.8.7.7
18 to 19 years.7.7.7.8.8.7
20 to 24 years1.21.21.21.41.31.4
25 years and over5.34.94.94.95.15.0
25 to 34 years3.02.82.72.83.02.9
35 to 44 years6.15.55.35.05.25.1
45 to 54 years10.19.49.59.19.68.1
55 to 64 years10.511.210.210.29.89.5
65 years and over8.37.19.08.18.28.3
Women
16 years and over3.53.43.33.43.83.9
16 to 17 years.7.6.6.7.6.6
18 to 19 years.7.7.7.8.8.7
20 to 24 years1.21.11.01.11.31.2
25 years and over4.74.44.44.44.74.8
25 to 34 years2.72.52.52.52.82.8
35 to 44 years4.84.54.34.24.54.6
45 to 54 years7.07.27.36.56.46.7
55 to 64 years10.09.69.99.69.29.2
65 years and over8.48.79.79.49.69.5

In January 2006, about one-quarter (24.4%) of workers aged sixteen and over had worked for their current employer for twelve months or less, the BLS notes in Employee Tenure in 2006. These included workers who had recently entered the workforce, as well as workers who had changed employers in the previous year. Another 29.1% of the workforce had worked for their current employer for one to five years. One-fifth (20.9%) had worked for their current employer for five to nine years, 9.5% had worked for ten to fourteen years, 6.7% had worked for fifteen to nineteen years, and almost one in ten (9.4%) had worked for their current employer for twenty years or more.

Industry

Employee Tenure in 2006 also reports that in January 2006 workers in utilities had the highest median tenure (10.4 years) of the major industries identified by the BLS. (See Table 1.17.) Government employees tended to have above average median employee tenures; the median tenure for federal government employees was 9.9 years, for local government employees it was 6.6 years, and for state government employees it was 6.3 years. Employee tenure was fairly short in leisure and hospitality, with a median tenure of only 1.9 years.

Number of Jobs Held

The more jobs a person holds in their working years, the shorter their employee tenures. From 1978 to 2004 Americans held an average of 10.5 different jobs when they were between the ages of eighteen and forty. Men had held 10.7 jobs on average, and women had held 10.3 jobs. People with associate's or bachelor's degrees had a higher average number of jobs, at 10.9 and 10.7, respectively, perhaps because students tend to hold part-time jobs during the school year or summers that may change frequently. (See Table 1.18.)

TABLE 1.17
Median years of tenure with current employer for employed wage and salary workers, by industry, selected years, 200006
IndustryFebruary
2000
January
2002
January
2004
January
2006
Total, 16 years and over3.53.74.04.0
Private sector3.23.33.53.6
Agriculture and related industries3.74.23.73.8
Nonagricultural industries3.23.33.53.6
Mining4.84.55.23.8
Construction2.73.03.03.0
Manufacturing4.95.45.85.5
Durable goods manufacturing4.85.56.05.6
Nonmetallic mineral products5.55.34.85.0
Primary metals and fabricated metal products5.06.36.46.2
Machinery manufacturing5.36.86.46.6
Computers and electronic products3.94.75.25.9
Electrical equipment and appliances5.05.59.86.2
Transportation equipment6.47.07.77.2
Wood products3.74.35.04.7
Furniture and fixtures4.44.74.74.2
Miscellaneous manufacturing3.74.54.63.9
Nondurable goods manufacturing5.05.35.55.4
Food manufacturing4.65.04.95.2
Beverage and tobacco products5.54.68.05.4
Textiles, apparel, and leather4.75.05.04.4
Paper and printing5.16.26.96.3
Petroleum and coal products9.59.811.45.0
Chemicals6.05.75.36.1
Plastics and rubber products4.65.35.75.0
Wholesale and retail trade2.72.83.13.1
Wholesale trade3.93.94.34.6
Retail trade2.52.62.82.8
Transportation and utilities4.74.95.34.9
Transportation and warehousing4.04.34.74.3
Utilities11.513.413.310.4
Information*3.43.34.34.8
Publishing, except Internet4.24.84.75.3
Motion picture and sound recording industries1.62.32.21.9
Broadcasting, except Internet3.63.14.04.6
Telecommunications4.33.44.65.3
Financial activities3.53.63.94.0
Finance and insurance3.63.94.14.1
Finance3.33.64.03.9
Insurance4.44.54.44.7
Real estate and rental and leasing3.13.03.33.4
Real estate3.13.23.53.5
Rental and leasing services3.02.22.93.1
Professional and business services2.42.73.23.2
Professional and technical services2.63.13.63.8
Management, administrative, and waste services*2.02.12.62.5
Administrative and support services1.81.92.42.4
Waste management and remediation services3.64.33.44.1
Education and health services3.43.53.64.0
Educational services3.23.63.84.0
Health care and social assistance3.53.53.64.1
Hospitals5.14.94.75.2
Health services, except hospitals3.23.13.33.6
Social assistance2.42.52.83.1
Leisure and hospitality1.71.82.01.9
Arts, entertainment, and recreation2.62.32.83.1
Accommodation and food services1.51.61.91.6
Accommodation2.82.73.12.5
Food services and drinking places1.41.41.61.4

Among non-Hispanic whites, average number of jobs held did not vary between men and womeneach had an average of 10.6 jobs. (See Table 1.18.) However, African-American and Hispanic men and women differed markedly in average number of jobs held. African-American men held an average of 10.8 jobs between the ages of eighteen and forty, while African-American women of the same age held an average of only 9.3 jobs. Hispanic men held an average of 11.2 jobs between the ages of eighteen and forty, while Hispanic women held an average of only 8.7.

UNION MEMBERSHIP

In 2007, 12.1% of American workers were union members. (See Table 1.19.) This figure represented a

TABLE 1.17
Median years of tenure with current employer for employed wage and salary workers, by industry, selected years, 200006
IndustryFebruary
2000
January
2002
January
2004
January
2006
* Includes other industries, not shown separately.
Note: Data for January 2004 reflect the introduction of revisions to population controls in January 2003 and 2004. Data for January 2006 reflect the introduction of revisions to population controls in January 2005 and 2006.
SOURCE: Table 5. Median Years of Tenure with Current Employer for Employed Wage and Salary Workers by Industry, Selected Years, 200006, in Employee Tenure in 2006, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, September 8, 2006, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/tenure.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
Other services3.13.33.33.2
Other services, except private households3.23.33.53.3
Repair and maintenance3.03.03.22.9
Personal and laundry services2.72.83.42.8
Membership associations and organizations4.04.13.94.2
Other services, private households3.02.72.32.8
Public sector7.16.76.96.9
Federal government11.511.310.49.9
State government5.55.46.46.3
Local government6.76.26.46.6

dramatic decline from 1973, when nearly one-quarter (24%) of wage and salary workers in the United States belonged to a union. According to Barry T. Hirsch and David A. Macpherson in the Union Membership and Coverage Database (Union Membership, Coverage, Density, and Employment among All Wage and Salary Workers, 19732007, February 8, 2008, http://wwww.unionstats.com/), union membership declined rapidly during the 1980s to 16.1% by 1990, and the downward trend has continued into the twenty-first century, hitting a low of 12% in 2006.

It should be noted that a worker might be represented by a union in contract negotiations but not be a dues-paying member. In a right-to-work state a worker is allowed to join a unionized company and not be forced to join the union. By law, the nonunion worker, working in a unionized company, must benefit from any union contract. Unions represented 13.3% of wage and salary employees in 2007; that is, 13.3% of workers held jobs that were covered by a union contract whether or not they were affiliated with the union personally. (See Table 1.19.) Studies, such as that by Solomon W. Polachek of the State University of New York at Binghamton (What Can We Learn about the Decline in U.S. Union Membership from International Data? September 2002, http://www.middlebury.edu/NR/rdonlyres/0A720CA0-1033-4ACC-917D-746553305EBF/0/Polachek_final_paper.pdf), have explored why union membership has dwindled. It has been established that the recession of the early 1980s, the movement of jobs overseas, the decline in traditionally unionized heavy industry, as well as the expansion of traditionally nonunionized sectors of the economy (such as management and business services and other service occupations) contributed to a general decline in union membership that has been documented in data comparable from year to year since 1983. Auburn University's Anju Mehta, in Is Outsourcing the End of Unionism? Exploring the Impact of Outsourcing on Labor Unions in the U.S. (July 2007, http://www.globalwork.in/GDW07/pdf/25-317-324.pdf), notes that in a strategy that was counter to past contract negotiations, many unions in the 1980s agreed to give backs (surrendering existing benefits) and lower salaries in exchange for job guarantees. Nonetheless, movement of jobs from the United States to other countries continued, which resulted in fewer jobs for American workers and more plant closings, and prompted more aggressive recruitments of members by unions during the 1990s.

As of 2008, leading labor unions in the United States included:

  • AFL-CIO Formed in 1955 by the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, the AFL-CIO, according to its Web site (http://www.aflcio.org/aboutus/), by 2008 represented about 10.5 million American workers in fifty-six affiliated unions, ranging from the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA) and the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers (BAC) and the National Association of Letter Carriers (NALC).
  • American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) Boasting membership of 1.4 million in 2008 (http://www.afscme.org/about/aboutindex.cfm), the nation's largest union of public service employees was founded during the Great Depression of the 1930s to protect the rights of state and local government employees.
  • American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Representing the economic, social, and professional interests of classroom teachers since 1916, the AFT included more than three thousand local affiliates and over 1.4 million members in 2008 (http://www.aft.org/about/index.htm).
  • Communications Workers of America Growing out of the telephone industry in the early part of the

    TABLE 1.18
    Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 40, by demographic characteristics, 19782004
    Percent distribution by number of jobs held
    CharacteristicTotal0 or 1 job2 to 4 jobs5 to 7 jobs8 to 10 jobs11 to 14 jobs15 or more jobsMean number of jobs held
    a Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
    b Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
    c Data not shown where cell size is less than 50.
    Notes: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed in 2004/05. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 195764 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 200405. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2004 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.
    SOURCE: Number of Jobs Held by Individuals from Age 18 to Age 40 in 1978 to 2004 by Education Attainment, Sex, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Age, in National Longitudinal Surveys, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Undated, http://www.bls.gov/nls/y79r21jobsbyedu.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
    Total100.01.413.420.223.120.821.210.5
    Less than a high school diploma100.04.316.817.518.518.124.810.6
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.316.022.220.919.620.010.2
    Some college or associate degree100.01.011.920.123.921.022.110.9
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.00.99.018.127.923.420.710.7
    Men100.01.014.219.822.120.222.710.7
    Less than a high school diploma100.00.713.817.117.918.232.312.0
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.516.320.320.918.222.810.5
    Some college or associate degree100.00.413.222.619.219.425.311.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.00.711.618.228.325.315.810.4
    Women100.01.912.620.524.121.319.610.3
    Less than a high school diploma100.09.321.018.119.218.014.48.6
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.015.824.320.821.316.99.8
    Some college or associate degree100.01.510.918.227.622.319.510.7
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.01.06.418.027.521.525.711.2
    White non-Hispanic100.01.213.519.723.320.921.610.6
    Less than a high school diploma100.04.013.617.618.517.828.511.3
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.117.122.120.619.419.710.1
    Some college or associate degree100.00.412.419.123.221.023.811.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.01.09.117.428.523.720.310.7
    White non-Hispanic men100.00.915.020.222.019.722.110.6
    Less than a high school diploma100.00.012.416.917.715.038.112.8
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.618.421.120.417.421.210.2
    Some college or associate degree100.00.014.324.117.217.826.611.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.00.811.517.629.126.014.910.1
    White non-Hispanic women100.01.511.919.124.522.121.010.6
    Less than a high school diploma100.09.215.318.619.421.615.89.3
    High school graduates, no collegea100.00.515.723.220.821.718.110.1
    Some college or associate degree100.00.810.915.128.123.621.511.2
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.01.16.617.227.821.425.811.2
    Black non-Hispanic100.02.313.021.222.821.019.610.1
    Less than a high school diploma100.03.524.517.118.718.317.99.2
    High school graduates, no collegea100.02.012.120.722.522.220.510.3
    Some college or associate degree100.03.09.923.425.921.016.710.0
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.00.09.223.421.920.425.110.5
    Black non-Hispanic men100.01.511.617.023.822.923.210.8
    Less than a high school diploma100.02.819.416.517.424.719.110.0
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.09.115.624.721.728.011.4
    Some college or associate degree100.02.39.118.528.224.317.610.6
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.014.821.121.222.919.99.9
    Black non-Hispanic women100.03.114.625.821.818.915.89.3
    Less than a high school diploma100.04.632.518.020.88.215.97.9
    High school graduates, no collegea100.03.416.327.919.522.910.18.8
    Some college or associate degree100.03.610.526.724.418.716.19.7
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.04.825.222.418.529.011.1
    Hispanic or Latino100.02.115.024.020.219.019.710.0
    Less than a high school diploma100.03.621.915.819.420.518.79.8
    High school graduates, no collegea100.02.213.728.617.516.321.710.0
    Some college or associate degree100.01.513.322.825.020.217.210.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.08.526.720.723.520.610.4
    Hispanic or Latino men100.01.211.520.721.119.326.211.2
    Less than a high school diploma100.00.812.314.820.524.227.411.9
    High school graduates, no collegea100.02.510.424.219.216.826.910.8
    Some college or associate degree100.00.012.719.522.519.625.711.5
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.0ccccccc
    Hispanic or Latino women100.03.118.827.619.318.712.58.7
    Less than a high school diploma100.07.334.917.217.915.66.97.0
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.817.233.215.715.716.310.0
    Some college or associate degree100.03.113.926.027.420.88.810.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.0ccccccc

    twentieth century, the CWA is the nation's largest communications and media union with, according to its Web site (http://www.cwa-union.org/about/profile.html), more than seven hundred thousand members in such sectors as telecommunications, broadcasting, cable TV, journalism, publishing, and electronics.

  • The International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (UAW)With 640,000 active and over 500,000 retired members in more than 800 local unions in 2008 (http://www.uaw.org/about/uawmembership.html), the UAW protects the rights of automobile and aeronautics

    TABLE 1.18
    Number of jobs held by individuals from age 18 to age 40, by demographic characteristics, 19782004
    Percent distribution by number of jobs held
    CharacteristicTotal0 or 1 job2 to 4 jobs5 to 7 jobs8 to 10 jobs11 to 14 jobs15 or more jobsMean number of jobs held
    a Includes persons with a high school diploma or equivalent.
    b Includes persons with a bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
    c Data not shown where cell size is less than 50.
    Notes: This table excludes individuals who turned age 18 before Jan. 1, 1978, or who had not yet turned age 41 when interviewed in 2004/05. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 consists of men and women who were born in the years 195764 and were ages 14 to 22 when first interviewed in 1979. These individuals were ages 39 to 48 in 200405. Educational attainment is defined as of the 2004 survey. Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity groups are mutually exclusive but not exhaustive. Other race groups, which are included in the overall totals, are not shown separately because their representation in the survey sample is not sufficiently large to provide statistically reliable estimates.
    SOURCE: Number of Jobs Held by Individuals from Age 18 to Age 40 in 1978 to 2004 by Education Attainment, Sex, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Age, in National Longitudinal Surveys, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Undated, http://www.bls.gov/nls/y79r21jobsbyedu.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
    Hispanic or Latino women100.03.118.827.619.318.712.58.7
    Less than a high school diploma100.07.334.917.217.915.66.97.0
    High school graduates, no collegea100.01.817.233.215.715.716.310.0
    Some college or associate degree100.03.113.926.027.420.88.810.1
    Bachelor's degree and higherb100.0ccccccc

    workers, and since 1935 has won such landmark concessions as employer-paid health care and cost-of-living allowances.

  • United Mine Workers of America The United Mine Workers, an AFL-CIO affiliated union, has won several hard-fought battles to ensure fair compensation, health care, and safety standards in the mining industry since the union's inception in 1890 (http://www.umwa.org/who/).

Industry and Occupation

According to the BLS in Union Members in 2007 (January 25, 2008, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf), in 2007 public sector workers had a much higher rate of union membership than did private sector employees (35.9% and 7.5%, respectively). Among the private nonagricultural industries, transportation and utilities had the highest unionization rate (22.1%) in 2007; 28.4% of workers in the utilities sub-sector belonged to unions and 20.9% of workers in the transportation and warehousing sub-sector belonged to unions. Although about an average number of workers in information services were unionized in 2007, almost one in five (19.7%) telecommunications workers were.

People in certain occupations were more likely to be unionized than others. In 2007, as noted by the BLS in Union Members in 2007, professionals had a high unionization rate of 18.2%, fueled largely by the very high unionization rate among people working in education, training, and library services (37.2%). People in protective service occupations, which include many government workers (such as police, prison guards, and firefighters), also had a high percentage of union members, at 35.2%.

Characteristics of Union Members

A greater proportion of African-Americans were union members in 2007 than any other group. Among working African-Americans, 14.3% were union members in 2007, compared with 11.8% of whites, 10.9% of Asians, and 9.8% of Hispanics. (See Table 1.19.) Among whites, African-Americans, and to a lesser degree Hispanics, union membership was lower for women than for men. Although 15.8% of employed African-American men were union members in 2007, only 13% of African-American women were. White men had higher union membership (12.8%) than white women (10.8%); Hispanic men (9.9%) had higher union membership than Hispanic women (9.6%). Conversely, among Asians, women had the higher rate of union membership, at 11.6%, compared with a rate of 10.2% for Asian men.

Earnings

In 2007 union members garnered a median weekly salary ($863) that was $200 higher than the median weekly salary of those not represented by unions ($663). (See Table 1.20.) Unionized women earned a median weekly paycheck of $790, compared with $592 for women not belonging to or represented by a union, a difference of $198 per week. Men who belonged to a union had median weekly earnings of $913, compared with $738 for nonunion men, a difference of $175 per week. The disparity in earnings was greatest for Hispanic workers in 2007. The median weekly earnings of unionized Hispanic workers was $736, compared with just $487 for nonunionized Hispanic employees, a difference of $249 per week. These differences are in part due to a union's ability to win higher wages for its members, and in part due to the fact that unionized employees are often working in relatively higher-paid industries than nonunionized employees.

According to the BLS in Union Members in 2007, in nearly all occupations, with the exception of people in management, professional, and related occupations, people represented by unions earned more than those who were not in 2007. The better wages among unionized employees also held true in all private sector industries except in financial activities and professional and technical services, where nonunionized employees earned slightly more than unionized ones. In the public sector, nonunionized federal employees made slightly more than unionized federal employees, although at the state and local levels, unionized employees had the wage advantage

TABLE 1.19
Union affiliation of employed wage and salary workers, by selected characteristics, 200607

[Numbers in thousands]
20062007
Members of unionsaRepresented by unionsbMembers of unionsaRepresented by unionsb
CharacteristicTotal employedTotalPercent of employedTotalPercent of employedTotal employedTotalPercent of employedTotalPercent of employed
a Data refer to members of a labor union or an employee association similar to a union.
b Data refer to members of a labor union or an employee association similar to a union as well as workers who report no union affiliation but whose jobs are covered by a union or an employee association contract.
c The distinction between full- and part-time workers is based on hours usually worked. These data will not sum to totals because full- or part-time status on the principal job is not identifiable for a small number of multiple jobholders.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Data refer to the sole or principal job of full- and part-time wage and salary workers. Excluded are all self-employed workers regardless of whether or not their businesses are incorporated. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: Table 1. Union Affiliation of Employed Wage and Salary Workers by Selected Characteristics, in Union Members in 2007, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 25, 2008, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and over128,23715,35912.016,86013.1129,76715,67012.117,24313.3
16 to 24 years19,5388574.49785.019,3959394.81,0685.5
25 years and over108,69914,50213.315,88314.6110,37214,73113.316,17614.7
25 to 34 years28,8052,89910.13,19511.129,4093,05010.43,35811.4
35 to 44 years30,5263,99713.14,35614.330,2963,97213.14,36214.4
45 to 54 years29,4014,71016.05,13117.529,7314,66415.75,08717.1
55 to 64 years16,0952,56816.02,83217.616,7522,69116.12,96717.7
65 years and over3,8723288.53709.54,1833558.54029.6
Men, 16 years and over66,8118,65713.09,36014.067,4688,76713.09,49414.1
16 to 24 years10,1305435.46086.09,9595515.56276.3
25 years and over56,6828,11414.38,75215.457,5098,21714.38,86715.4
25 to 34 years15,6771,65010.51,79311.415,9941,73610.91,88411.8
35 to 44 years16,1592,30914.32,48815.416,0702,31814.42,50115.6
45 to 54 years14,8672,61717.62,80718.915,0402,57817.12,74518.3
55 to 64 years7,9901,37017.11,47418.48,2861,40316.91,53218.5
65 years and over1,9891678.41909.62,1191818.52059.7
Women, 16 years and over61,4266,70210.97,50112.262,2996,90311.17,74912.4
16 to 24 years9,4083153.33703.99,4363884.14414.7
25 years and over52,0186,38812.37,13113.752,8636,51412.37,30813.8
25 to 34 years13,1271,2499.51,40110.713,4161,3139.81,47411.0
35 to 44 years14,3681,68711.71,86713.014,2261,65311.61,86113.1
45 to 54 years14,5342,09314.42,32516.014,6912,08614.22,34115.9
55 to 64 years8,1061,19814.81,35816.88,4661,28815.21,43517.0
65 years and over1,8831608.51809.52,0651748.41979.5
Race, Hispanic or Latino
ethnicity, and sex
White, 16 years and over104,66812,25911.713,42412.8105,51512,48711.813,71513.0
Men55,4597,11512.87,66813.855,7717,13412.87,70813.8
Women49,2095,14410.55,75611.749,7435,35210.86,00712.1
Black or African American, 16 years and over14,8782,16314.52,39116.115,1772,16514.32,40315.8
Men6,7881,05615.61,15817.16,9451,09715.81,20517.3
Women8,0901,10713.71,23315.28,2321,06713.01,19814.6
Asian, 16 years and over5,70359210.465711.56,01665410.972012.0
Men3,0152869.531610.53,16832410.234811.0
Women2,68830611.434012.72,84933011.637213.1
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and over18,1211,7709.81,93510.718,7781,8379.82,02610.8
Men10,8421,0649.81,14410.611,1631,1089.91,20810.8
Women7,2797069.779110.97,6157289.681810.7
Full- or part-time statusc
Full-time workers106,10613,93813.115,24414.4107,33914,20113.215,57014.5
Part-time workers21,8631,3826.31,5737.222,1721,4376.51,6357.4
TABLE 1.20
Median weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, by union affiliation and selected characteristics, 200607
20062007
CharacteristicTotalMembers of unionsaRepresented by unionsbNonunionTotalMembers of unionsaRepresented by unionsbNonunion
a Data refer to members of a labor union or an employee association similar to a union.
b Data refer to members of a labor union or an employee association similar to a union as well as workers who report no union affiliation but whose jobs are covered by a union or an employee association contract.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. Persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race. Data refer to the sole or principal job of full-time wage and salary workers. Excluded are all self-employed workers regardless of whether or not their businesses are incorporated. Updated population controls are introduced annually with the release of January data.
SOURCE: Table 2. Median Weekly Earnings of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers by Union Affiliation and Selected Characteristics, in Union Members in 2007, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 25, 2008, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf (accessed February 3, 2008)
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and over$671$833$827$642$695$863$857$663
16 to 24 years409526523404424566551418
25 years and over718850845691738880876712
25 to 34 years621773766606643789781622
35 to 44 years748853849728769910907745
45 to 54 years773888884750790900899763
55 to 64 years765882883741803925921766
65 years and over583675667573605634682597
Men, 16 years and over743887885717766913910738
16 to 24 years418526521413443567557432
25 years and over797904902771823930928796
25 to 34 years661831822640687823819664
35 to 44 years836918914816873971969847
45 to 54 years897936939883909958961892
55 to 64 years902928930893933954952926
65 years and over658650653659686732776672
Women, 16 years and over600758753579614790784592
16 to 24 years395527529391409564540403
25 years and over627768763607646805800620
25 to 34 years583727716565597753745580
35 to 44 years645759755626668826820640
45 to 54 years659807798628677813810650
55 to 64 years658819822627679886881641
65 years and over510690678495534582608520
Race, Hispanic or Latino
ethnicity, and sex
White, 16 years and over690859854659716889884684
Men761909907735788937934757
Women609777772588626814807603
Black or African American, 16 years and over554707694520569732727533
Men591745734557600768763573
Women519665656502533697691513
Asian, 16 years and over784834840774830853881823
Men882838852888936867898940
Women699828824681731842871712
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and over486686681469503736729487
Men505732724490520793782505
Women440607614420473675672446