liver
It was the Greeks who first abandoned superstition in favour of an approach to the understanding of the body based on anatomy and physiology, and it is in the writings of Aristotle where the first attempts to describe animals' livers based on dissection are to be found. However, because of his great influence, Aristotle also helped to perpetuate the notion that human emotions were controlled by four cardinal ‘humours’, two of which — yellow bile and black bile — emanated from the liver. These liver-derived humours were held to be responsible for choleric and melancholic moods, respectively. The coming of the Renaissance age and the scientific revolution put paid to the notion that body organs exist under a hierarchical structure, and the fallacy of the four humour theory was exposed. Rather than denigrate the importance of the liver, however, advances in anatomy and physiology over the years have instead highlighted how important the liver is for normal bodily function.
Anatomy
The liver — the largest internal organ of the body — weighs approximately 1200–1500 g or, on average, one fiftieth of the total adult body weight. It is relatively larger in the infant, comprising approximately one twentieth of the birth weight. Situated in the upper abdomen, beneath the right rib cage and separated from the chest cavity by the diaphragm, the upper border of the liver lies approximately at the level of the nipples. Largely composed of cells known as hepatocytes, which are involved in a multiplicity of synthetic, metabolic, and biotransformatory processes, the liver is unusual in that it is perfused with a dual blood supply. The portal vein carries blood from the spleen and intestines and accounts for approximately 75% of the liver's blood supply, whilst the hepatic artery, which arises indirectly from the aorta, delivers the remaining 25%. Owing to the higher oxygen content of arterial blood, oxygen delivery to the liver is about equally derived from the portal vein and hepatic artery. There is continuous exchange between hepatocytes and the perfusing blood, as various chemicals delivered to the liver from elsewhere in the body by the bloodstream are taken up for degradation and further metabolism, whilst others produced by the liver are, conversely, exported from it. An alternative pathway for dispersal of substances produced in the liver is through secretion into an extensive system of minute canals which eventually form the bile ducts draining into the intestine.Functions
A multitude of functions of the liver have already been well described, and there are many more of which relatively little is currently known. One of the most important — and easily recognizable when deranged — is the metabolism of the pigment, bilirubin, a chemical predominantly derived from products released during the normal destruction of senescent red blood cells. Yellow discolouration of the eyes and the skin (jaundice) ensues when overproduction of bilirubin exceeds the liver's metabolic capability or when hepatic metabolism of bilirubin is impaired.Another important function of the liver is the synthesis of bile acids, which are then transported via the bile ducts into the intestine to aid in the digestion of fatty foods and the absorption of certain fat-soluble vitamins, particularly vitamins A, D, E, and K. These vitamins are important for night vision, building strong bones and maintaining normal skin integrity and nerve function, as well as for ensuring normal clotting of the blood. Cholesterol and phospholipids — each of which are important constituents of all cell membranes — and triglycerides — which contain a variety of fatty acids and act as an important storage form of energy — are also synthesized in the liver.
The liver is the main site for the metabolism of a vast range of chemical substances produced as a result of the digestion of food in the intestine. For example, ammonia, produced by digestive processes and by the action of intestinal bacteria on dietary protein, is absorbed into the bloodstream. Ammonia in high quantities interferes with normal brain function — an eventuality prevented by its conversion in the liver to the non-toxic compound, urea. Many other amino acids — the building blocks for protein synthesis — which are derived from the diet and from tissue degradation, are also carried by the bloodstream to the liver. Once there they are metabolized to various proteins with a wide range of important functions, including the prevention of fluid accumulation within the tissues and the binding of potentially toxic compounds, such as copper and iron. The liver has a remarkable capacity for such tasks. Under experimental conditions, at least 85% of the liver must be removed or damaged before protein synthesis is substantially impaired.
The liver also plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism, resulting in the synthesis of glucose for energy and the generation of body heat. Excess quantities are stored as glycogen, which can subsequently be mobilized as required. There is also a complex system of enzymes which function to convert a myriad of drugs and other toxins, including alcohol, to non-toxic metabolites. The activity of these enzyme systems may be modified by various factors. For example, the capacity of the liver to metabolize alcohol is increased by a steady high level of drinking but markedly impaired by alcohol binges.
Another important function of the liver is performed by so-called ‘phagocytic’ Kupffer cells, which line the vascular networks. These cells play an important role in the prevention of systemic infection and inflammation, by extracting and destroying particulate matter, such as pro-inflammatory bacterial cell walls, as it passes through the liver via the bloodstream.
Advancing age has various effects on the liver. Liver weight and blood supply are each reduced in the healthy elderly subject, but most functions of the liver are well maintained. However, the metabolism of certain drugs may be impaired and this may be at least partly responsible for the increased sensitivity to drugs and possibly also for the high prevalence of adverse drug reactions in this group, especially when multiple drugs are ingested.
Disorders
Any or all of the various liver functions outlined above may be disturbed to varying extents in acute liver disorders, such as acute viral hepatitis. Most such episodes resolve spontaneously without sequelae, owing to the great capacity of liver cells to regenerate. Chronic liver disorders, such as cirrhosis, in which fibrosis and nodule formation occur as the common end result of many disorders causing destruction of hepatocytes, may have more serious consequences. Over the past thirty-five years, liver transplantation has grown from a largely experimental procedure to become a well-established treatment option, not only for that subgroup of patients who have advanced cirrhosis and an otherwise poor prognosis, but also for those patients with the less commonly encountered acute liver failure or liver-based metabolic disorders. Over 650 liver transplantations are performed annually in the UK alone, with over 70% of recipients making a full recovery.It is clear that, even though ancient cultures were mistaken as to the functions of the liver, they were certainly correct in attaching so much importance to it. Indeed, the maxim that ‘life depends on the liver’ is as pertinent today as ever before.
Stephen M. Riordan, and Roger Williams
See alimentary system.See also bile; gall bladder; jaundice.
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liver
liver, largest glandular organ of the body, weighing about 3 lb (1.36 kg). It is reddish brown in color and is divided into four lobes of unequal size and shape. The liver lies on the right side of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm. Blood is carried to the liver via two large vessels: the hepatic artery carries oxygen-rich blood from the aorta, and the portal vein carries blood containing digested food from the small intestine. These blood vessels subdivide in the liver repeatedly, terminating in minute capillaries. Each capillary leads to a lobule. Liver tissue is composed of thousands of lobules, and each lobule is made up of hepatic cells, the basic metabolic cells of the liver. One of the liver's major functions is the manufacture and secretion of bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and released in the small intestine. Bile salts emulsify fats, a process that prepares the latter for digestion by the intestinal enzymes (see digestive system). The hepatic cells assimilate carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. They convert glucose to its stored form, glycogen, which is reconverted into glucose as the body requires it for energy. The ability of the liver to maintain the proper level of glucose in the blood is called its glucose buffer function. The end products of fat digestion, fatty acids, are used to synthesize cholesterol and other substances needed by the body. Excess carbohydrates and protein are also converted into fat by the liver. Digested proteins in the form of amino acids are broken down further in the liver by deamination. Part of the amino acid molecule is converted into glycogen and other compounds. Urea, a waste product of protein breakdown, is produced by the liver, a process which removes poisonous ammonia from the body fluids. The liver is also capable of synthesizing certain amino acids (the so-called nonessential amino acids) from other amino acids in a process called transamination. Some essential components of blood are manufactured by the liver, including about 95% of the plasma proteins and the blood-clotting substances (fibrinogen, prothrombin, and other coagulation factors). The liver also filters harmful substances from the blood. Phagocytic cells in the liver, called Kupffer cells, remove large amounts of debris and bacteria. In addition, the liver stores important vitamins and minerals, including vitamins A, D, K, and B12. Several diseases states can affect the liver, such as hepatitis (an inflammation of the liver) and cirrhosis (a chronic inflammation that progresses ultimately to organ failure). Alcohol alters the metabolism of the liver, which can have overall detrimental effects over long periods of abuse. In 1994, a bioartificial liver, part machine, part cloned living liver cells, was used for the first time. Functioning somewhat like a kidney dialysis machine, the bioartificial liver can support patients with acute liver failure until their own livers regenerate, or it can be used by patients while waiting for a liver transplant.
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Liver
Liver
The liver is the largest organ in the abdominal cavity and is located under the right and central portions of the diaphragm. It performs over two hundred functions including digestive, metabolic, storage, and other functions. This reddish-brown organ consists of two major lobes, the right lobe and the left lobe, and two smaller lobes, the caudate lobe and the quadrate lobe.
Lying under the right lobe is the gallbladder, a muscular sac that is anatomically and physiologically associated with the liver. Emerging from the gallbladder is the cystic duct.
The lobes contain liver cells (hepatocytes), which secrete bile, an alkaline , yellow-green liquid that is composed of water, bile salts, and several other substances. Bile is delivered to the duodenum, the first portion of the small intestine, where the bile salts emulsify lipids ; that is, break down large lipid globules into small droplets, in order to increase the efficiency of lipid digestion and absorption by the small intestine.
The hepatocytes secrete bile into numerous tiny ducts, which merge to form progressively wider ducts. These ducts ultimately merge to form the common hepatic duct, which descends from the liver. This duct merges with the gallbladder's cystic duct to form the bile duct, which opens into the duodenum. The opening is guarded by a sphincter , a circular muscle that is usually closed. Since the sphincter is usually closed, bile flowing down from the liver is prevented from entering the duodenum and, consequently, backs up via the cystic duct into the gallbladder.
Within the gallbladder, bile is stored and concentrated until it is expelled, when needed, via the cystic and bile ducts into the duodenum. Expulsion of bile occurs due to the simultaneous contraction of the gallbladder walls and relaxation of the sphincter guarding the entrance to the duodenum.
In addition to producing bile for the emulsification of dietary lipids, the liver also plays an important role in the maintenance of normal blood glucose concentration, inactivation of toxins, synthesis of plasma proteins , and the metabolism of carbohydrates , fats, and proteins.
see also Blood Sugar Regulation; Digestion; Digestive System; Poisons
Izak Paul
Bibliography
Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
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liver
liv·er1 / ˈlivər/ • n. a large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates, involved in many metabolic processes. ∎ a similar organ in other animals. ∎ the flesh of an animal's liver as food: slices of calf's liver [as adj.] liver pâté chicken livers. ∎ (also liver color) a dark reddish brown. liv·er2 • n. [with adj.] a person who lives in a specified way: a clean liver high livers.
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liver
In the ancient world, the liver of a sacrificed animal was examined for omens.
A light coloured liver was traditionally supposed to show a deficiency of choler, and thus indicate a lack of spirit or courage; the expressions white-livered and yellow-livered, meaning cowardly, derive from this.
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liver
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Modern Language Association
The Chicago Manual of Style
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
American Psychological Association
Notes:
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- In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list.
Liver
Cite this article
Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.
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MLA
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Chicago
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APA
"Liver." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Encyclopedia.com. 23 Apr. 2018 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.
"Liver." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Encyclopedia.com. (April 23, 2018). http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/liver-0
"Liver." Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Retrieved April 23, 2018 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/liver-0
Citation styles
Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA).
Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list.
Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites:
Modern Language Association
The Chicago Manual of Style
http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
American Psychological Association
Notes:
- Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates.
- In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list.